MEMORY:

PROCESS,MODELS AND
RESEARCH METHODS
 MEMORY
 MEMORY IS THE MEANS BY
WHICH WE RETAIN AND DRAW
ON OUR PAST EXPERIENCES
TO USE IN THE PRESENT
 AS A PROCESS, IT MEANS THE

DYNAMIC MECHANISMS
ASSOCIATED WITH
STORING,RETAINING AND
RETRIEVING INFORMATION
MEMORY
 Memory is the ability to
record information about
things or events with the
capacity of recalling them
later at will.
MEMORY PROCESS
3 COMMON OPERATIONS
OF MEMORY
 ENCODING –TRANSFORM
DATA INTO A FORM OF
MENTAL REPRESENTATION

 STORAGE-KEEP ENCODED
DATA IN MEMORY

 RETRIEVAL-PULL OUT OR USE

STORED INFO IN MEMORY
 THESE PROCESSES ARE SEQUENTIAL BUT AT
THE SAME TIME INTERACT WITH ONE
ANOTHER
 WHAT ARE THE TECHNIQUES TO AID THE

DIFFERENT PROCESSES?
ENCODING of Memory
 Encoding is the crucial first step to creating a new
memory. It allows the perceived item of interest to be
converted into a construct that can be stored within
the brain, and then recalled later from short-
term or long-term memory.

 WHEN ONE ENCODES AN INFORMATON FOR

TEMPORARY USE, WHAT CODE DOES ONE USE?

There are three or four main types of encoding:

Acoustic encoding, Visual encoding, Tactile encoding,
and Semantic encoding.
ACOUSTIC ENCODING
 is the processing and encoding of sound,
words and other auditory input
for storage and later retrieval.
 This is aided by the concept of

the phonological loop, which allows input

within our echoic memory to be sub-
vocally rehearsed in order to facilitate
remembering.
VISUAL ENCODING
 process of encoding images and visual sensory
information.
 Visual sensory information is temporarily stored
within the iconic memory before being encoded
into long-term storage.
 The amygdala (within the medial temporal
lobe of the brain which has a primary role in the
processing of emotional reactions) fulfills an
important role in visual encoding, as it accepts
visual input in addition to input from other
systems and encodes the positive or negative
values of conditioned stimuli.
TACTILE ENCODING
is the encoding of how something feels,
normally through the sense of touch.
 Physiologically, neurons in the

primary somatosensory cortex of the

brain react to vibrotactile stimuli caused by
the feel of an object.
SEMANTIC ENCODING
 is the process of encoding sensory input
that has particular meaning or can be
applied to a particular context, rather than
deriving from a particular sense.
LONG-TERM POTENTIATION
 long - term potentiation (LTP) occurs when the
excitation between cells is prolonged.
 This strengthens the connections between the
cells and makes them more apt to fire together in
the future.
 LTP essentially strengthens the affinity between
neurons by reconfiguring their electrochemical
relationship.
 If the firing between these neurons continues,
the genes within the neurons are turned on in
order to construct more building blocks for the
infrastructure and enhance the relationship.
MEMORY STORAGE
 This concerns the nature of memory stores,
i.e. where the information is stored, how
long the memory lasts for (duration), how
much can be stored at any time (capacity)
and what kind of information is held.
 The way we store information affects the

way we retrieve it.

 two distinct types of memory storage: short-

term memory and long-term memory.

SHORT-TERM MEMORY
(STM)
 The reproduction, recognition, or recall of
perceived material after a period of 10
seconds or longer has elapsed after the
initial presentation.

 It is also known as the “Recent Memory”

LONG-TERM MEMORY
 A term used to describe memories other
than those which remain for a few seconds
only. This memories stays with us
indefinitely
LONG TERM STORAGE
 MOST INFO STORED IN LONG TERM MEMORY IS
SEMANTICALLY ENCODED, IT IS ENCODED BY MEANING
OF WORDS
 EXERCISE:
 PARTICIPANTS LEARNED A LIST OF 41 WORDS, AFTER
FIVE MINUTES, THEY WERE GIVEN A RECOGNITION TEST
 INCLUDED IN THE RECOGNITION TEST ARE DISTRACTERS;
NINE OF WHICH IS RELATED TO THE 41 WORDS AND
NINE WERE NOT
 RESULTS SHOW THAT THEY FALSELY RECOGNIZED AN
AVE OF 1.83 OF THE SYNONYMS BUT ONLY AN AVERAGE
OF 1.05 OF THE UNRELATED WORDS
 THIS INDICATES A LIKELIHOOD OF SEMANTIC CONFUSION
EXPLICIT MEMORY
 This type of memory is also known as
declarative memory, since you can
consciously recall and explain the
information.
TWO MAJOR TYPES OF EXPLICIT
MEMORY
 Episodic memory: These are your long-
term memories of specific events, such as
what you did yesterday or your high school
graduation.
 Semantic memory: These are memories

of facts, concepts, names, and other

general knowledge information.
IMPLICIT MEMORY
 Things that we don't purposely try to
remember are stored in implicit memory.

 This kind of memory is both unconscious

and unintentional
PROCEDURAL MEMORY
 Related to how to perform a specific task
like swinging a baseball bat or making
toast,
 This is one type of implicit memory since

you don't have to consciously recall how to

perform these tasks.
 While implicit memories are not consciously

recalled, they still influence how you behave

as well as your knowledge of different tasks.
STORAGE
TRANSFER OF INFO FROM STM
TO LTM
 2 KEY PROBLEMS
 INTERFERENCE-WHEN COMPETING INFO
INTERFERES WITH STORING INFO
 DECAY- WHEN WE FORGET FACTS AS TIME
PASSES
 MOVING INFO TO LTM THEN INVOLVES
DECLARATIVE TO NONDECLARATIVE MEMORY
 NONDECLARATIVE MEMORY DECAYS LIKE
PRIMING AND HABITUATION
 CAN BE MAINTAINED THRU REPEATED PRACTICE
OF REPEATED CONDITIONING
 ENTRANCE INTO LT DECLARATIVE MEMORY
MAY OCCUR IN MANY WAYS:
1. DELIBERATELY ATTENDING TO INFO TO
COMPREHEND IT
2. 2.MAKING CONNECTIONS OR
ASSOSICATION BETWEEN NEW INFO AND
OLD INFO; INTEGRATING NEW INFO TO OLD
SCHEMA AND THIS PROCESS IS CALLED
CONSOLIDATION
 STRESS CAN IMPAIR MEMORY FUNCTIONING BUT
CAN ALSO HELP ENHANCE CONSOLIDATION OF
MEMORY VIA RELEASE OF HORMONES
 METAMEMORY OR REFLECTING ON OUR MEMORY
PROCESSES, CAN BE USED TO PRESERVE OR
ENHANCE THE INTEGRITY OF MEMORIES DURING
CONSOLIDATION; JUST ONE COMPONENT OF
METACOGNITION
 METACOGNITION-ABILITY TO THINK ABOUT AND
CONTROL OUW OWN PROCESSES OF THOUGHT
AND WAYS OF ENHANCING OUR THINKING
REHEARSAL
 ONE TECHNIQUE USED TO KEEP INFO
ACTIVE
 REPEATED RECITATION OF AN ITEM
 EFFECTS OF REHERASAL IS CALLED

PRACTICE EFFECTS
 MAYBE OVERT OR ALOUD OR COVERT OR

SILENT
 TO MOVE FROM STM TO LTM VIA REHEARSAL,
ONE MUST USE :
 ELABORATIVE REHEARSAL- ELABORATES THE

ITEMS TO BE REMEMBERED
 MAINTENANCE REHEARSAL-SIMPLY

REHEARSES THE ITEMS TO BE REPEATED –

BUT TEMPORARY ONLY, HAS TO BE
ELABORATED
 IN EXAMS THEN, YOU NEED TO LINK OR

ELABORATE NEW INFO TO WHAT YOU

ALREADY KNOW
SPACING EFFECT
 BEST WAY TO ORGANIZE TIME IN REHEARSING NEW INFO
 DISTRIBUTION OF STUDY BY EBBINGHAUS
 MEMORY TENDS TO BE OKAY VIA DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE,
LEARNING SESSIONS ARE SPACED OVER TIME
 NOT OK WHEN MASSED PRACTICE IS USED- CRAMMED
SESSIONS IN A VERY SHORT TIME
 SPACING EFFECT- MAXIMIZING THE EFFECT ON LONG
TERM RECALL VIA SPACING OVER MONTHS RATHER THEN
DAYS OR WEEKS
 APPLICATION IS IN ADVERTISING – WILL ADVERTISE ONLY
ONCE EVERY MONTH
 WHY DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE? INFO IS LEARNED IN
DIVERSE CONTEXTS WHICH STREGHTENS
CONSOLIDATION
SLEEP AND MEMORY
CONSOLIDATION
 RESEARCH SHOW BETTER LEARNING WITH MORE
REM STAGE SLEEP AFTER EXPOSURE TO LEARNING
 PEOPLE WHO LACK SLEEP HAVE PROBLEMS IN
MEMORY CONSOLIDATION
 MEMORY PROCESSES IN HIPPOCAMPUS ARE
INFLUENCED BY THE PRODUCTION OF NEW CELLS
INTO THE NEURONAL NETWORK WHICH HAPPENS
ONLY IN A GOOD NIGHT SLEEP- REM SLEEP AT THAT
 DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE AIDS THE HIPPOCAMPUS
BECAUSE OF REPEATED EXPOSURE AND
THEREFORE REPEATED ACTIVATION
ORGANIZATION OF
INFORMATION
 PEOPLE DO THEIR OWN WAY OF
ORGANZING INFO
 MNEMONIC DEVICES-SPECIFC TECHNIQUES

TO HELP ONE MEMORIZE LIST OF WORDS

 SUCH DEVICES ADD MEANING TO

MEANINGLESS WORDS
 EVEN MUSIC CAN BE A MNEMONIC DEVICE-

CAN SING A INFO TO BE MEMORIZED

 KINDS:MNEMONIC
CATEGORICAL ORGANIZE A SET OF LIST INTO A SET OF
CLUSTERING CATEGORIES
INTERACTIVE IMAGES CREATIVE INTERACTIVE IMAGES THAT LINK
ISOLATED WORDS IN A LIST
PEGWORD SYSTEM ASSOCIATE EACH NEW WORD WITH A WORD
ON A PREVIOUSLY MEMORIZED LIST AND
FORM AN INTERACTIVE IMAGE BETWEEN THE
TWO WORDS
METHOD OF LOCI VISUALIZE WALKING AROUND AN AREA WITH
DISTINCTIVE LANDMARKS THAT YOU KNOW
WELL,THEN LINK THE AVRIOUS LANDMARKS
TO SPECIFIC ITEMS TO BE REMEMBERED
ACRONYM DEVISE A WORD OR EXPRESSION IN WHICH
EACH OF ITS LETTERS STANDS FOR A CERTAIN
WORD OR CONCEPT
ACROSTIC FORM A SENTENCE RATHER THAN A SINGLE
WORD TO HELP YOU REMEMBER THE NEW
WORDS
KEYWORD SYSTEM FORM AN INTERACTIVE IMAGE THAT LINKS THE
SOUND AND MEANING OF A FOREIGN WORD
RECALL
 Recall in memory refers to the mental
process of retrieval of information from the
past.

 There are three main types of recall: free

recall, cued recall and serial recall.
FREE RECALL
 describes the process in which a person is
given a list of items to remember and then
is tested by being asked to recall them in
any order.
 Free recall often displays evidence

of primacy and recency effects.

PRIMACY AND RECENCY
EFFECT
 Primacy effects are displayed when the
person recalls items presented at the
beginning of the list earlier and more often.
 The recency effect is when the person

recalls items presented at the end of the list

earlier and more often.
CUED RECALL
 Cued recall is when a person is given a list
of items to remember and is then tested
with cues to remember material.
SERIAL RECALL
 Serial recall is the ability to recall items or
events in the order in which they occurred
RETRIEVAL FROM STM
 PARALLEL PROCESSING –ITEMS ARE
RETRIEVED AT ONCE,NOT ONE AT A TIME;
SIMULTANEOUS HANDLING OF MULTIPLE
OPERATIONS;

 SERIAL PROCESSING-ITEMS ARE RETRIEVED

SEQUENTIALLY
 IF INFO PROCESSING IS SERIAL, 2 WAYS TO
GAIN ACCESS TO STIMULI
 1.EXHAUSTIVE SERIAL PROCESSING-ALWAYS
CHECKS THE TEST DIGIT AGAINST ALL DIGITS
IN THE SET; ALL ITEMS ARE RETRIEVED
REGARDLESS OF THE TASK
 2.SELF-TERMINATING SERIAL PROCESSING-
WILL CHECK TEST DIGITS AGAINST ONLY
THOSE DIGITS NEEDED TO MAKE A
RESPONSE; RETRIEVAL STOPS AS SOON AS
AN ITEM SEEMS TO ACCOMPLISH THE TASK
RETRIEVAL FROM LTM
 CUED RECALL IS BETTER THAN FREE
RECALL

 WE HAVE PROBLEMS IN RETRIEVAL AT TIMES

BECAUSE OF AVILABILITY AND
ACCESSIBILITY

 AVAILABILITY-PRESENCE OF INFO IN LTM

 ACCESSIBILITY-DEGREE WHICH WE CAN

ACCESS THE AVAILABLE INFO
PROCESS OF FORGETTING AND
MEMORY DISTORTION
 INTERFERENCE THEORY
 FORGETTING OCCURS BECAUSE RECALL OF

CERTAIN ITEMS INTERFERES WITH RECALL

OF OTHER ITEMS
2 KINDS OF INTERFERENCE
 RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE OR RETROACTIVE
IHIBITION-OCCURS WHEN NEWLY ACQUIRED
KNOWLEDGE IMPEDES THE RECALL OF OLDER
MATERIAL; CAUSED BY ACTIVITIES AFTER WE
LEARN SOMETHING
 PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE OR PROACTIVE
INHIBITION-OCCURS WHEN PREVIOUSLY LEARNED
MATERIAL IMPEDES THE LEARNING OF NEW
MATERIAL; INTERFERENCE OCCURS BEFORE
LEARNING EX: PREVIOUS FOREIGN LANG
LEARNING TO NEW LANGUAGE
 PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE IS HIGHER IN ADULTS
PROCESS OF FORGETTING
 SERIAL POSITION CURVE-PROB OF RECALL OF A
WORD DEPENDS ON THE SERIAL POSITION OR
ORDER OF PRESENTATION
 RECENCY EFFECT-THE LAST IN THE LIST MAY BE
RECALLED BETTER
 PRIMACY EFFECT-THE FIRST IN THE LIST MAY BE
RECALLED BETTER
 WORDS AT THE END OF THE LIST ARE SUBJECT TO
PROACTIVE BUT NOT RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE
 WORDS AT THE BEGINNING OF THE LIST ARE
SUBJECT TO RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE BUT NOT
TO PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE
PROCESS OF FORGETTNG
 DECAY THEORY-INFO IS FORGOTTEN
BECAUSE OF GRADUAL
DISAPPEARNCE ,RATHER THAN
DISPLACEMENT OF MEMORY TRACE –
UNLESS SOMETHING IS DONE TO KEEP IT
INTACT
CONSTRUCTIVE NATURE OF
MEMORY
 RECONSTRUCTIVE MEMORY-INVOLVES USE
OF VARIOUS STRAT FOR RETRIEVING ORIG
MEMORY TRACES, THEN REBUILD THE ORIG
EXP AS BASIS FOR RETRIEVAL
 CONSTRUCTIVE MEMORY-PRIOR EXPERIENCE

AFFECTS HOW WE RECALL THINGS AND

WHAT WE ACTUALLY RECALL FROM MEMORY
AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL
MEMORY
 MEMORY OF AN INDIVIDUAL’S HISTORY, IT IS
CONSTRUCTIVE
 ONE REMEMBERS ONE’S CONSTRUCTION OR
RECONSRUACTION OF WHAT HAPPENED; SUBJECT
TO DISTORTIONS
 STUDY USING DIARIES- TEST THE ABILITY TO
RECALL WHAT THEY HAVE WRITTEN IN THEIR
DIARIES
 BEGINNING ENTRIES AND LAST ENTRIES AS WELL
AS IMPORTANT EVENTS WERE REMEMBERED
 SELF-ESTEEM ALSO AFFECTED RECALL, POSITVE
SELF ESTEEM PEOPLE RECALL POSITIVE EVENTS
 FLASHBULB MEMORY- VERY VIVID MEMORY
OF AN EVENT BECAUSE OF EMOTIONAL
INTENSITY OR REHEARSAL OR RETELL
MEMORY DISTORTIONS
 TRANSCIENCE-MEMORY FADES QUICKLY
 ABSENT MINDEDNESS
 BLOCKING
 MISATTRIBUTION
 SUGGESTIBILITY-SOME ARE SUSCEPTIBLE TO

SUGGESTIONS
 BIAS-BASED ON CURRENT STATE
 PERSISTENCE
EYEWITNESSING
 MAY BE INFLUENCED BY QUESTIONING AND
SUGGESTIONS AND CONFESSIONS
MODELS OF MEMORY
Models of memory

1. THE ATKINSON-SHIFFRIN MODEL(MULTI-STORE MODEL)

 A structural model that suggests three storage
systems (places); Sensory Store, Short-Term Memory
(STM), Long-Term Memory (LTM).
 Information moves through these systems under
the control of various cognitive processes (attention,
rehearsal, etc.).
THE ATKINSON-SHIFFRIN MODEL(MULTI-STORE
MODEL)
 ATKINSON-SHIFFRIN
MODEL(MULTI-STORE MODEL)
 1 SENSORY STORE-STORES STRONG
RELATIVELY LIMITED AMOUNT OF INFO FOR
VERY BRIEF PERIODS

 2.SHORT TERM STORE-CAN STORE FOR

LONGER PERIOD BUT WITH LIMITED CAPACITY

 3.LONG TERM-VERY LARGE CAPACITY FOR

VERY LONG TIME
LEVELS OF PROCESSING(LOP)
MODEL

 This approach suggests that deeper levels of processing

produce better retention than shallow levels (Craik &
Lockhart, 1972).
 Depth is interpreted in terms of meaning -- A dimension
which starts with the physical characteristics, through
verbal-acoustic, to semantic
LEVELS OF PROCESSING(LOP)
MODEL
LOP MODEL
LEVEL OF BASIS FOR EXAMPLE
PROCESSING PROCESSING
PHYSICAL VISUALLY APPARENT TABLE: IS THE WORD
FEATURES OF THE WRITTEN IN CAPITAL
LETTER LETTERS?
PHONOLOGICAL SOUND COMBINATION CAT: DOES THE WORD
ASSOCIATED WITH RHYME WITH MAT?
THE LETTERS
(EX:RHYMING)
SEMANTIC MEANING OF THE DAFFODIL: IS THE
WORD WORD A TYPE OF
PLANT?
LEVELS OF PROCESSING(LOP)
MODEL
 RADICAL DEPARTURE FROM THE THREE
STORES MODEL

 POSTULATES THAT MEMORY DOES NOT

COMPRISE SEPARATE STORES BUT VARIES
ALONG A CONTINUOUS DIMENSIONS IN
TERMS OF DEPTH OF ENCODING

 THE HIGHER OR DEEPER THE ENCODING,

THE BETTER THE RETRIEVAL
4. PARALLEL DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING MODELS

o Cognitive processes including memory can be

conceived as networks in which the elements exhibit
multiple links.

o Based on cognitive science assumptions that

intelligent systems can be built out of dumb elements.
The intelligence is in the connections.

o Units in the system, through their many links,

may affect other units through excitation or inhibition.

o Representations (knowledge, memory) exist in

the resultant patterns of activation that occur in the
network.
AN INTEGRATIVE MODEL:
WORKING MEMORY
 MEANS ACTIVE MEMORY
 THAT PART OF LONG TERM MEMORY THAT
COMPRISES ALL THE FACTS AND PROCEDURES
IN MEMORY INCLUDING SHORT TERM MEMORY
 SHORT TERM,LONG TERM AND WORKING
MEMORY MAY BE SEEN AS NESTED
CONCENTRIC SPHERES
 INFO REMAINS IN THE LONG TERM
MEMORY,WHEN ACTIVATED,BECOMES ACTIVE
MEMORY AND ALSO GETS INFO FROM SHORT
TERM MEMORY
METHODS OF STUDYING
MEMORY
TASKS USED FOR MEASURING
MEMORY

1. Recall versus Recognition Task

 Recognition is easier than recall.
 Think of your brain like a file cabinet, with tons of information
stored in it.
 When you recognize a piece of information, it’s like the tab on a
file folder in your head; the whole file folder now gets pulled up.
 By writing down anything you know about a problem, getting
started in any possible way, you are hopefully going to write
something that you then recognize, and your brain is going to
pull the tab and bring up the rest of the folder.
• The big difference between recognition and recall is the
amount of cues that can help the memory retrieval;
recall involves fewer cues than recognition; recall
memory is expressive knowledge.

• Recognition is easier than recall because it involves

more cues: all those cues spread activation to related
information in memory, raise the answer’s activation,
and make you more likely to pick it; tapping receptive
knowledge
TASKS USED IN STUDYING
MEMORY
RECALL VS RECOGNITION TASKS
RECALL-PRODUCE ITEMS, FACTS OR
WORDS FROM MEMORY (ESSAY,
FILL IN THE BLANKS)
RECOGNITION-SELECT FROM WHAT
YOU HAVE BEEN EXPOSED
PREVIOUSLY (MULTIPLE CHOICE)
3 TYPES OF RECALL
1.SERIAL RECALL –IN EXACT ORDER
2,FREE RECALL-RECALL IN ANY
ORDER
3.CUED RECALL-ALSO CALLED
PAIRED-ASSOCIATION RECALL
2. Implicit vs Explicit memory

• Long term memory is often divided into two

further main types: explicit (or declarative)
memory and implicit (or procedural)
memory.

 Declarative memory (“knowing what”) is

memory of facts and events, and refers to
those memories that can be consciously
recalled (or "declared").

 called explicit memory, since it consists of

information that is explicitly stored and
retrieved, although it is more properly a
subset of explicit memory.
 sub-divided into episodic memory and
semantic memory.

• Procedural memory (“knowing how”) is the

unconscious memory of skills and how to do
things, particularly the use of objects or
movements of the body, such as tying a
shoelace, playing a guitar or riding a bike.

 memories are typically acquired through

repetition and practice

 sometimes referred to as implicit memory,

because previous experiences aid in the
performance of a task without explicit and
conscious awareness of these previous
experiences
STORAGE
EXCEPTIONAL MEMORY AND
NEUROPSYCHOLOGY
 MNEMONIST- someone who demonstrates an extraordinary
keen memory ability, usually based on using special techniques
for memory enhancement.
• Mnemonist: “V.P.” a Russian immigrant, could memorize long
strings of material, such as rows and columns of numbers.
• V.P. relied more on verbal translation. He reported memorizing
numbers by transforming them into dates
 RELY ON VISUAL IMAGERY
 CONVERT MATERIAL THAT ONE NEEDED TO REMEMBER
INTO VISUAL IMAGES
 This rare phenomenon is called synesthesia the
experience of sensations in a sensory modality
different from the sense that has been physically
stimulated.
Hypermnesia

• A process of producing retrieval of memories that would

seem to have been forgotten.

• Sometimes loosely called as “unforgetting”, although the

terminology is cannot be correct because strictly
speaking, the memories that are retrieved were never
unavailable (i.e., forgotten) but rather, they were
inaccessible (i.e., hard to retrieve)
Amnesia

• Severe loss of explicit memory

• One type is retrograde amnesia, in which individuals lose

their purposeful memory for events before whatever trauma
induces memory loss.

• Infantile Amnesia: inability to recall events of young

childhood

• Anterograde Amnesia: no memory for events that occur

after the trauma
Alzheimer’s Disease

• A disease of older adults that causes dementia as well as

progressive memory loss.
• Symptoms (Gradual, Continuous & Irreversible)
• Memory loss
• Problems doing familiar tasks
• Problems with language
• Trouble knowing the time, date, or place
• Poor or decreased judgment
• Problems with abstract thinking
• Misplacing things often, such as keys
• Changes in mood and behavior
• Changes in personality
HOW DO WE RESPOND TO HIGHS
AND LOWS IN LIFE? WHAT
CONNECTIONS ARE BEING
STRENGTHENED ?
References:
 PsycARTICLES. American Psychological Association. (via DLSU library on-line databases)
 ScienceDirect. Elsevier B. V. (via DLSU library on-line databases)
 Sternberg, R. J. (2009). Cognitive psychology. Cengage Learning.
 Sternberg, R. J., & Sternberg, K. (2012). Cognitive Psychology (6th ed.). Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth.
 Anderson, John. (2015) . Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications, 8th Edition. USA: Worth
Publishers:
 McBride, Dawn M & Cutting, Cooper J. (2015). Theory, Process and
Methodology.2nd edition USA: Sage Publications
 Eysenck, Michael W and Keane,Mark T. (2015) Cognitive Psychology: A
Student’s Handbook. NY: Psychology Press