Introduction to Machinery Principles

Muhammad Jafar
 Some perspective on electrical machines

• Robotics
– https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-e1_QhJ1EhQ

• Renewable generation
– https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=anzrmuxh9dQ

• Conventional generation
– 2000 MW unit

• Electric transportation
– https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_vehicle
– https://www.visualcapitalist.com/electric-vehicle-sales-by-model-2023/#:~:text
=Electric%20vehicle%20(EV)%20sales%20are,increasingly%20look%20to%20ele
ctric%20options
.
2
 Brief Description

• Course designed to provide students with

understanding of:
– general principles of electromechanical
machine operation
– Transformers
– AC machines (Generators and Motors)
– DC machines (Generators and Motors)

3
 Basic Information

• Textbook:
– Electric Machinery Fundamentals

• Author:
– Stephen J. Chapman

• Publisher
– McGraw Hill (5th edition)

• Text and reference books, course outline available

on SLATE
 Course Grading

• Absolute grading ( means pass)

• Assessment will be based on CLOs

– Quizzes 20%
– Sessional exams 30%
– Final exam 50%

5
 Class discipline

• Be on time
– Entry denied if you are 10 minutes late
– Habitual late comers can be denied entry even if they are 5 minutes late

• No talking among students

– Students are encouraged to ask questions but directly to the instructor

• Mobile phones to be placed at the front of the class

– Any student found to be using their phone will have it confiscated until the end
of the day

• Be respectful to the instructor and fellow students

6
 Electrical Machines, Transformers, and Daily Life
• Electrical machine
– A Device that can convert either mechanical energy to electrical
energy or electrical energy to mechanical energy
– Generator
• Converts mechanical energy to electrical energy
– Motor
• Converts electrical energy to mechanical energy
– Almost all practical motors and generators convert energy from one
form to another through action of a magnetic field

• Transformer
– Electrical device closely related to electrical machines
– Converts AC electrical energy at one voltage level to AC electrical
energy at another voltage level
 Electrical Machines, Transformers, and Daily Life
• Applications
– Refrigerators
– Washing machines
– Air conditioners
– Power generation
– Transmission and distribution

• Why so common
– Ease of energy transport over long distances in the form of
electricity
– Imagine using combustion engines for all the applications above
• Cost
• Noise
• Pollution
 ROTATIONAL MOTION, NEWTON'S LAW, AND POWER
RELATIONSIDPS
• Almost all electric machines rotate
about an axis
– parallel to shaft of machine

• Direction of rotation described as

either clockwise (CW) or
counterclockwise (CCW)
– CCW angle of rotation assumed
positive
– CW assumed negative
 Angular Position
• Angle at which something is oriented
– measured from some arbitrary reference point
• Angular position usually measured in radians (rad) or
degrees (deg)
• Corresponds to linear concept of distance along a line
 Angular velocity
• Rate of change in angular position with respect to time
– assumed positive if rotation in CCW direction

– measured in radians per second (rad/sec)

– rotational analog of velocity in translational motion

• - Angular velocity expressed in radians per second

• - Angular velocity expressed in revolutions per second
• - Angular velocity expressed in revolutions per minute
(rpm)
 Angular acceleration

• Rate of change in angular velocity

– assumed positive if angular velocity is increasing in an
algebraic sense
– rotational analog of acceleration in translational motion

– measured in radians per second squared (rad/s2)

 Torque
• Twisting force on an object

• Angular velocity constant unless torque is

present

• greater the torque, more rapidly the angular

velocity of the object changes

• Torque= (force applied to an

object)*(smallest distance between line of
action of force and object's axis of rotation)
– vector pointing from axis of rotation to point of
application of force
– is applied force, then

– angle between and

 Torque
• Torque
– CW if it would cause a CW
rotation
– CCW if it would cause a CCW
rotation

• Units
– newton-meters (N-m) in SI units
– pound-feet (lb-ft) in English
system
 Newton's Law of Rotation

• Newton’s law of rotation

– Where
• net applied torque in newton-meters or pound-feet
• resulting angular acceleration in radians per second
squared
• moment of inertia of object measured in kilogram-
meters squared (kg-m2) or slug-feet squared
 Work
• For rotational motion, work is

• If torque is constant

• Units
– joules (J) in SI
– foot-pounds (ft-lb) in English system
 Power
• Rate of doing work

• Measured in joules per second (watts), foot-pounds per second or

horsepower

• Assuming constant torque, power is

• Power measured in watts, torque in newton-meters, and speed in

radians per second.
 The Magnetic Field
• What is a Magnetic Field?
– Fundamental mechanism by which energy is converted from one form to
another in machines

• Two properties (always remember the distinction)

– Magnetic field intensity (cause)
– Magnetic flux or lines of force (effect)

• What makes a magnetic field?

– Created by moving electric charge
• Electromagnets
• Permanent magnets

• Measured properties
– Strength
 The Magnetic Field
• Units to measure strength of a magnetic field?
– Magnetic flux density: unit of measurement: Tesla (SI)

• How can we “see” forces in a magnetic field?

– Draw field lines to show direction of force at different locations within a
magnetic field
– Field lines exit magnet at its north pole, travel around in air, and re-enter
magnet through its south pole
– Field lines don’t start in one place and stop in another
• Travel in “closed paths,” which means they will continue to travel the same path
again and again

• Important
– Magnetic field is present everywhere around the magnet
– Not just along the field lines that we draw, but even between field lines
– Lines help us visualize direction of field at various locations around the magnet
and even within magnet
 The Magnetic Field

Iron filings sprinkled onto a

piece of paper on top of a bar
magnet Magnetic forces can
penetrate paper forces of a magnetic
field can penetrate
water too, and many
other substances…
even your hand!
 The Magnetic Field
• Four basic principles described for machines:

1. A current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field in around it

2. A time-changing magnetic field induces a voltage in a coil of wire

if it passes through that coil (basis of transformer action)

3. A current-carrying wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a

force induced on it (basis of motor action)

4. A moving wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a voltage

induced in it (basis of generator action)
 Production of a Magnetic Field
• The basic law:

• magnetic field intensity produced

by current
• differential element of length along
path of integration

• In SI units
– measured in amperes
– measured in ampere-turns per meter
 Production of a Magnetic Field
• Refer to figure
– Essentially all magnetic field
produced by current will remain
inside core
– So path of integration in ampere's
law is mean path length of core
• Current passing within path of
integration

• Since coil of wire cuts path of

integration times while carrying
current
∮ 𝐇 ∙𝑑𝒍=𝑰 𝑛𝑒𝑡
• Ampere's law becomes

• magnitude of magnetic field

 Production of a Magnetic Field
• Magnetic field intensity
– Measure of "effort" that current puts to establish magnetic field

• Strength of magnetic flux produced depends on material of core

• Relationship between magnetic field intensity and resulting magnetic

flux density produced

• magnetic permeability of material (H/m)

• Relative permeability, =
• for steel is 2000 to 6000 or even more
– For a given current, 2000 to 6000 times more flux established in a piece of steel
than in corresponding area of air
 Production of a Magnetic Field
• Magnitude of flux density

• Total flux in a given area

• Where is differential unit of area

• If flux density vector is perpendicular to plane of area , and if flux
density is constant throughout the area

• Total flux in core

Where cross-sectional area of core

 Magnetic Circuits

• Refer to electric circuit

– Voltage or electromotive force drives current flow
• By analogy, corresponding quantity in magnetic circuit called
magnetomotive force (mmf)

• MMF = effective current flow applied to core

– where is magnetomotive force, measured in ampere-turns

 Magnetic Circuits

• Positive end of mmf from which flux exits

• Negative end of mmf source at which flux reenters
• Modified right-hand rule
– If fingers of right-hand curl in direction of current flow in coil, thumb will point
in direction of positive mmf

• In electric circuit, applied voltage causes a current to flow

• In magnetic circuit, applied magnetomotive force causes flux to flow
Production of a Magnetic Field
 Magnetic Circuits
• Relationship between MMF and flux

– Where (AT/Wb) is reluctance of circuit

• Same concept as resistance
• Reluctance equation

• Same series and parallel rules as resistance

– Series

– Parallel
 Approximations in Calculations of The Flux in A Core
1. Leakage flux
– Magnetic circuit concept assumes all flux confined within core
– Not true
– Small fraction of flux escapes from core into surrounding air
– Flux outside core called leakage flux

2. Mean Path Length

– Calculation of reluctance assumes a certain mean path length and cross-
sectional area for core
– These assumptions are not really very good

3. Permeability
– In ferromagnetic materials, permeability varies with amount of flux already
in material 𝑙𝑐
– Adds another source of error to magnetic circuit analysis ℜ = 𝜇 𝐴
 Approximations in Calculations of The Flux in A Core
4. Air Gap
– Effective cross-sectional area of air gap >
cross-sectional area of iron core on all sides
– Extra effective area caused by "fringing
effect"
 Example 1.1
• A ferromagnetic core is shown in the
figure
• Three sides of this core are of
uniform width, while the fourth side
is somewhat thinner
• The depth of the core (into the page)
is 10 cm, and the other dimensions
are shown in the figure
• There is a 200-turn coil wrapped
around the left side of the core
• Assume relative permeability of
2500
• how much flux will be produced by a
1-A input current?
 Example 1.1
• Core can be divided into two
regions:
– (1) single thinner side
– (2) other three sides taken together
• Corresponding magnetic circuit

• So
 Example 1.1
• total reluctance

• total MMF

• total flux
 Magnetic Behavior of Ferromagnetic Materials
• Magnetic permeability
– Defined by
– Constant in free space
– Not true for ferromagnetic materials
• Saturation or a magnetization curve
– Apply direct current to core as shown
– Increase from 0 A to maximum
– Resulting plot looks like
 Magnetic Behavior of Ferromagnetic Materials

• Small increase in mmf produces large increase in flux

• Further increases in mmf produce relatively smaller increases in flux
• Finally, an increase in mmf produces almost no change in flux

• Saturation region: in which curve flattens out

– Core is said to be saturated
• Unsaturated region: where flux changes very rapidly
– Core is said to be unsaturated
• Transition region: between unsaturated and saturated region
– Sometimes called knee of curve
 Magnetic Behavior of Ferromagnetic Materials

• Unsaturated region: flux produced linearly related to mmf

• Slope of curve at any is permeability
– Large and relatively constant in unsaturated region
– Drops to very low value as core becomes heavily saturated
 Magnetic Behavior of Ferromagnetic Materials

• Advantage of using a ferromagnetic material

– Many times more flux for a given MMF with iron than
with air
– However, core must be operated in unsaturated region

• Since real generators and motors depend on

magnetic flux to produce voltage and torque
– Designed to produce as much flux as possible
– Machines operate near knee of magnetization curve
– Flux not linearly related to mmf
– Nonlinearity means odd behavior
 Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core
• Apply increasing current
• Then decrease current
• Observe what happens
• When current falls
– Flux traces out a different path
• Flux present in core depends on
– Amount of current applied
– Previous history of flux
• Hysteresis loop
 Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core
• Dependence on preceding flux
history and resulting failure to
retrace flux paths called hysteresis
• Path bcdeb traced out on reduction
of current
• At :
– Current is zero
– Flux is not zero
• Magnetic field left in core: residual flux

• To force flux to zero,

– MMF known as coercive MMF must
be applied in opposite direction
 Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core
• Atoms of iron and similar metals (cobalt, nickel, and some of their
alloys) tend to have magnetic fields closely aligned with each other
• Within metals, there are small regions called domains
– All atoms in each domain aligned magnetically
– Each domain acts as a small permanent magnet
– An unmagnetized block of iron has no flux, i.e., domains oriented randomly
– Application of field causes domains to point in direction of field
– Domains pointing in direction of magnetic field grow as current increases
 Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core
• Extra atoms aligned with field increase magnetic flux in iron
– Causes more atoms to switch orientation
• As strength of external magnetic field increases
– More domains that are aligned in wrong direction reorient themselves
– When nearly all domains are lined up with external field, any further increase
in MMF can cause only same flux increase that it would in free space
– No more feedback effect to strengthen field
– At this point, iron is saturated
 Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core
• When external magnetic field removed, domains do not completely randomize
again
– Because turning atoms in them requires energy
– The piece is now a permanent magnet
• Examples of sources of external energy that can change boundaries between
domains and/or alignment of domains are
– MMF applied in another direction
– Dropped on floor
– Hitting with hammer
– Heating
 Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core
• Turning domains requires
energy
– Means energy loss in all
machines and transformers
• Hysteresis loss
– Energy required to accomplish
reorientation of domains during
each cycle of current applied
– Area enclosed in hysteresis loop
formed energy lost each cycle
– Smaller the MMF excursions on
core
• Smaller the area of resulting
hysteresis loop
• Smaller the resulting losses
 Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core
• Second type of loss: The eddy current loss
– Explained later

• Impact of hysteresis and eddy current loss

– Cause heating in core material
– Energy loss

• Together called core losses

 Faraday's Law- Induced Voltage From a Time-changing
Magnetic Field
• Basis of transformer operation
• Statement: flux passing through a turn of a coil of wire will induce
voltage directly proportional to rate of change in flux

• Voltage induced in a coil with turns

• Lenz’s law: Direction of voltage buildup in coil is to cause a flux

opposing the original flux change
 Faraday's Law- Induced Voltage From a Time-changing
Magnetic Field
• Flux linkage
– Induced voltage in any turn numbered

– Voltage induced in coil

 Faraday's Law- Induced Voltage From a Time-changing
Magnetic Field
• Explains eddy current losses
– A time-changing flux induces voltage within a ferromagnetic core
– These voltages cause swirls of current to flow within the core, i.e. eddies seen
in water when you throw a stone: eddy currents.
– Eddy currents flow in resistive material: energy dissipation and heating
– Energy lost depends on size of current swirls and resistivity
 Faraday's Law- Induced Voltage
From a Time-changing Magnetic Field
• Points to note with regards to eddy current problem
– Larger the swirl, greater the resulting induced voltage
– Larger the induced voltage, larger the losses
– Greater the resistivity, lower the current flow (modification of core material)

– Two possible remedies

• Break core into many small strips, or laminations
– Swirl size will be reduced
– Resulting in lower induced voltage, lower current, and lower losses
– Reduction roughly proportional to width of laminations
– Core is built up out of many of these laminations in parallel
• An insulating resin used between the strips
 Production of Induced Force on a Wire
• A magnetic field induces a force on a
current-carrying wire within the field
• Force induced on conductor given by

where
– = magnitude of current in wire
– = length of wire, where direction of is
direction of current
– = magnetic flux density vector
 Production of Induced Force on A Wire
• Force direction by right-hand rule:
– Index finger in the direction of
– Palm in direction
– Thumb in direction of force
• Easier method
– current in wire produces its own field
– Interaction of main field and wire field
• Strengthens total field at some locations
• Weakens total field at some other
location
• Wire pushed towards area with weaker
field

• Force magnitude:
– angle between and
 INDUCED VOLTAGE ON A CONDUCTOR MOVING IN A
MAGNETIC FIELD
• If a wire with proper orientation moves
through a magnetic field
– Voltage induced:
– Where
• = velocity of the wire
• = magnetic flux density vector
• = length of conductor in the magnetic field
• Voltage polarity: direction of vector

• Another method for voltage polarity

– Motion causing voltage induction
– Induced voltage if allowed to force a current will force a current so
that
• It enhances overall field in front of wire
• Weakens field behind moving wire