Chapter 5: Link layer

goals:
 understand principles behind link
layer services:
 error detection, correction
 sharing a broadcast channel: multiple
access
 link layer addressing
 local area networks: Ethernet, VLANs
 instantiation, implementation of
various link layer technologies

Link Layer 5-1

Link layer, LANs: outline
5.1 introduction, 5.5 a day in the life
services of a web request
5.2 error detection,
correction
5.3 multiple access
protocols
5.4 LANs
 addressing, ARP
 Ethernet
 switches
 VLANS

Link Layer 5-2

 Link layer:
introduction
terminology:
 hosts and routers: nodes
 communication channels global ISP
that connect adjacent
nodes along
communication path: links
 wired links
 wireless links
 LANs
 layer-2 packet: frame,
encapsulates datagram

data-link layer has responsibility of

transferring datagram from one node
to physically adjacent node over a link
Link Layer 5-3
Link layer: context
 datagram transferred transportation
by different link analogy:
protocols over different  trip from Islamabad to
links: Lahore
 e.g., Ethernet on  Daewoo:
first link, frame relay  plane:
on intermediate  train:
links, 802.11 on last  tourist = datagram
link  transport segment =
 each link protocol communication link
provides different  transportation mode =
services link layer protocol
 e.g., may or may not  travel agent = routing
provide rdt over link algorithm
Link Layer 5-4
Link layer services

framing, link access:
 encapsulate datagram into frame, adding
header, trailer
 channel access if shared medium
 “MAC” addresses used in frame headers to
identify source, dest
• different from IP address!
 reliable delivery between adjacent
nodes
 we learned how to do this already (chapter
3)!
 seldom used on low bit-error link (fiber,
some twisted pair)
 wireless links: high error rates

Link Layer 5-5

Link layer services
(more)
 flow control:
 pacing between adjacent sending and receiving
nodes
 error detection:
 errors caused by signal attenuation, noise.
 receiver detects presence of errors:
• signals sender for retransmission or drops frame
 error correction:
 receiver identifies and corrects bit error(s) without
resorting to retransmission
 half-duplex and full-duplex
 with half duplex, nodes at both ends of link can
transmit, but not at same time

Link Layer 5-6

Where is the link layer
implemented?
 in each and every host
 link layer implemented
in “adaptor” (aka
network interface card
NIC) or on a chip
 Ethernet card, 802.11 application
transport
card; Ethernet chipset network
link
cpu memory

 implements link,
physical layer host
bus
 attaches into host’s link
controller (e.g., PCI)

system buses physical

physical
 combination of transmission

hardware, software,
firmware network adapter
card

Link Layer 5-7

Adaptors communicating

datagram datagram

controller controller

sending host receiving host

datagram

frame

 sending side:  receiving side

 encapsulates  looks for errors, rdt,
datagram in frame flow control, etc
 adds error checking  extracts datagram,
bits, rdt, flow control, passes to upper layer at
etc. receiving side

Link Layer 5-8

Error detection
EDC= Error Detection and Correction bits (redundancy)
D = Data protected by error checking, may include header fields

• Error detection not 100% reliable!

• protocol may miss some errors, but rarely
• larger EDC field yields better detection and correction

otherwise

Link Layer 5-9

Parity checking
single bit parity: two-dimensional bit parity:
 detect single bit  detect and correct single bit errors
errors

0 0

Link Layer 5-10

Internet checksum (review)
goal: detect “errors” (e.g., flipped bits) in transmitted
packet (note: used at transport layer only)

sender: receiver:
 treat segment  compute checksum of
contents as received segment
sequence of 16-bit  check if computed
integers checksum equals
 checksum: addition checksum field value:
(1’s complement  NO - error detected
sum) of segment  YES - no error
contents
detected. But
 sender puts maybe errors
checksum value into nonetheless?
UDP checksum field

Link Layer 5-11

Cyclic redundancy check
 more powerful error-detection coding
 view data bits, D, as a binary number
 choose r+1 bit pattern (generator), G
 goal: choose r CRC bits, R, such that
 <D,R> exactly divisible by G
 receiver knows G, divides <D,R> by G. If non-zero
remainder: error detected!
 can detect all burst errors less than r+1 bits
 widely used in practice (Ethernet, 802.11 WiFi,
ATM)

Link Layer 5-12

CRC example

Link Layer 5-13

Multiple access links,
protocols
two types of “links”:
 point-to-point
 PPP for dial-up access
 point-to-point link between Ethernet switch, host
 broadcast (shared wire or medium)
 Ethernet
 Shared RF (satellite)
 802.11 wireless LAN

shared wire (e.g., shared RF shared RF humans at a

cabled Ethernet) (e.g., 802.11 WiFi) (satellite) cocktail party
(shared air, acoustical)

Link Layer 5-14

Multiple access protocols
 single shared broadcast channel
 two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes
 collision if node receives two or more signals at
the same time

multiple access protocol

 distributed algorithm that determines how nodes
share channel, i.e., determine when node can
transmit
 communication about channel sharing must use
channel itself!
 no out-of-band channel for coordination

Link Layer 5-15

An ideal multiple access
protocol
given: broadcast channel of rate R bps
Desiderata (desired things):
1. when one node wants to transmit, it can send
at rate R.
2. when M nodes want to transmit, each can
send at average rate R/M
3. fully decentralized:
• no special node to coordinate transmissions
• no synchronization of clocks, slots
4. simple

Link Layer 5-16

MAC protocols: taxonomy
three broad classes:
 channel partitioning
 divide channel into smaller “pieces” (time slots,
frequency, code)
 allocate piece to node for exclusive use
 random access
 channel not divided, allow collisions
 “recover” from collisions
 “taking turns”
 nodes take turns, but nodes with more to send can
take longer turns

Link Layer 5-17

Channel partitioning MAC protocols:
TDMA
TDMA: time division multiple access
 access to channel in "rounds"
 each station gets fixed length slot
(length = pkt trans time) in each round
 unused slots go idle
 example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt,
slots 2,5,6 idle

6-slot 6-slot
frame frame
1 3 4 1 3 4

Link Layer 5-18

Channel partitioning MAC protocols:
FDMA
FDMA: frequency division multiple access
 channel spectrum divided into frequency bands
 each station assigned fixed frequency band
 unused transmission time in frequency bands go
idle
 example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt,
frequency bands 2,5,6 idle
time
frequency bands

FDM cable

Link Layer 5-19

Random access protocols
 when node has packet to send
 transmit at full channel data rate R.
 no a priori coordination among nodes
 two or more transmitting nodes ➜
“collision”,
 random access MAC protocol specifies:
 how to detect collisions
 how to recover from collisions (e.g., via
delayed retransmissions)
 examples of random access MAC
protocols:
 slotted ALOHA
 ALOHA
 CSMA, CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA
Link Layer 5-20
Pure (unslotted) ALOHA
 unslotted Aloha: simpler, no synchronization
 when frame first arrives
 transmit immediately
 collision probability increases:
 frame sent at t0 collides with other frames sent
in [t0-1,t0+1]

Link Layer 5-21

Slotted ALOHA
assumptions: operation:
 all frames same size  when node obtains fresh
 time divided into frame, transmits in next
equal size slots (time slot
to transmit 1 frame)  if no collision: node
 nodes start to can send new frame
transmit only slot in next slot
beginning  if collision: node
 nodes are retransmits frame in
synchronized each subsequent slot
 if 2 or more nodes with prob. p until
transmit in slot, all success
nodes detect collision

Link Layer 5-22

Slotted ALOHA
node 1 1 1 1 1

node 2 2 2 2

node 3 3 3 3

C E C S E C E S S

Pros: Cons:
 single active node  collisions, wasting
can continuously slots
transmit at full rate  idle slots
of channel  nodes may be able to
 highly decentralized: detect collision in less
only slots in nodes than time to transmit
need to be in sync packet
 simple  clock synchronization
Link Layer 5-23
CSMA (carrier sense multiple
access)
CSMA: listen before transmit:
if channel sensed idle: transmit entire
frame
 if channel sensed busy, defer
transmission

 human analogy: don’t interrupt

others!

Link Layer 5-24

CSMA collisions spatial layout of nodes

 collisions can still

occur: propagation
delay means two
nodes may not hear
each other’s
transmission
 collision: entire
packet
transmission time
wasted
 distance &
propagation delay
play role in
determining collision
probability

Link Layer 5-25

CSMA/CD (collision
detection)
CSMA/CD: carrier sensing, deferral as in
CSMA
 collisions detected within short time
 colliding transmissions aborted, reducing
channel wastage
 collision detection:
 easy in wired LANs: measure signal strengths,
compare transmitted, received signals
 difficult in wireless LANs: received signal
strength overwhelmed by local transmission
strength
 human analogy: the polite conversationalist

Link Layer 5-26

CSMA/CD (collision
detection)
spatial layout of nodes

Link Layer 5-27

“Taking turns” MAC
protocols
channel partitioning MAC protocols:
 share channel efficiently and fairly at high
load
 inefficient at low load: delay in channel
access, 1/N bandwidth allocated even if only
1 active node!
random access MAC protocols
 efficient at low load: single node can fully
utilize channel
 high load: collision overhead
“taking turns” protocols
look for best of both worlds!

Link Layer 5-28

“Taking turns” MAC
protocols
polling:
 master node
“invites” slave data
nodes to transmit poll
in turn
 typically used with master
“dumb” slave data
devices
 concerns:
 polling
slaves
overhead
 latency
 single point of
failure (master)
Link Layer 5-29
“Taking turns” MAC
protocols
token passing:
T
 control token
passed from one
node to next
sequentially.
(nothing
 token message to send)
 concerns: T
 token overhead
 latency
 single point of
failure (token)

data
Link Layer 5-30
 Summary of MAC
protocols
 channel partitioning, by time, frequency or
code
 Time Division, Frequency Division
 random access (dynamic),
 ALOHA, S-ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD
 carrier sensing: easy in some technologies
(wire), hard in others (wireless)
 CSMA/CD used in Ethernet
 CSMA/CA used in 802.11
 taking turns
 polling from central site, token passing
 bluetooth, FDDI, token ring

Link Layer 5-31

MAC addresses and ARP
 32-bit IP address:
 network-layer address for interface
 used for layer 3 (network layer) forwarding
 MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet)
address:
 function: used ‘locally” to get frame from one
interface to another physically-connected
interface (same network, in IP-addressing
sense)
 48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in
NIC ROM, also sometimes software settable
hexadecimal (base 16) notation
e.g.: 1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
(each “number” represents 4 bits)

Link Layer 5-32

 LAN addresses and ARP
each adapter on LAN has unique LAN address

1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD

LAN
(wired or adapter
wireless)
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0

0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98

Link Layer 5-33

LAN addresses (more)
 MAC address allocation administered by
IEEE
 manufacturer buys portion of MAC
address space (to assure uniqueness)
 analogy:
 MAC address: like Social Security Number
 IP address: like postal address
 MAC flat address ➜ portability
 can move LAN card from one LAN to another
 IP hierarchical address not portable
 address depends on IP subnet to which node
is attached
Link Layer 5-34
 ARP: address resolution
protocol
Question: how to determine
interface’s MAC address,
knowing its IP address? ARP table: each IP node
(host, router) on LAN has
table
137.196.7.78
 IP/MAC address
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD mappings for some
137.196.7.23
137.196.7.14
LAN nodes:
< IP address; MAC address;
TTL>
LAN  TTL (Time To Live):
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0 time after which
address mapping
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98 will be forgotten
137.196.7.88 (typically 20 min)

Link Layer 5-35

ARP protocol: same LAN
 A wants to send
datagram to B
 B’s MAC address not in A  A caches (saves) IP-
’s ARP table.
to-MAC address pair
 A broadcasts ARP query in its ARP table until
packet, containing B's information becomes
IP address
 dest MAC address = FF-
old (times out)
FF-FF-FF-FF-FF  soft state: information
 all nodes on LAN receive that times out (goes
ARP query away) unless
refreshed
 B receives ARP packet,
replies to A with its  ARP is “plug-and-
(B's) MAC address play”:
 frame sent to A’s MAC  nodes create their
address (unicast) ARP tables without
intervention from net
administrator
Link Layer 5-36
 Addressing: routing to another
LAN
walkthrough: send datagram from A to B via R
 focus on addressing – at IP (datagram) and MAC layer (frame)
 assume A knows B’s IP address
 assume A knows IP address of first hop router, R
 assume A knows R’s MAC address

A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F

Link Layer 5-37

Addressing: routing to another
LAN
 A creates IP datagram with IP source A, destination B
 A creates link-layer frame with R's MAC address as dest,
frame contains A-to-B IP datagram
MAC src: 74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
MAC dest: E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222

IP
Eth
Phy

A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F

Link Layer 5-38

Addressing: routing to another
LAN
 frame sent from A to R
 frame received at R, datagram removed, passed up to IP

MAC src: 74-29-9C-E8-FF-55

MAC dest: E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222

IP IP
Eth Eth
Phy Phy

A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F

Link Layer 5-39

Addressing: routing to another
LAN
 R forwards datagram with IP source A, destination B
 R creates link-layer frame with B's MAC address as dest,
frame contains A-to-B IP datagram

MAC src: 1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B

MAC dest: 49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222
IP
IP Eth
Eth Phy
Phy

A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F

Link Layer 5-40

Addressing: routing to another
LAN
 R forwards datagram with IP source A, destination B
 R creates link-layer frame with B's MAC address as dest,
frame contains A-to-B IP datagram

MAC src: 1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B

MAC dest: 49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222
IP
IP Eth
Eth Phy
Phy

A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F

Link Layer 5-41

Addressing: routing to another
LAN
 R forwards datagram with IP source A, destination B
 R creates link-layer frame with B's MAC address as dest,
frame contains A-to-B IP datagram
MAC src: 1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
MAC dest: 49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222

IP
Eth
Phy

A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F

Link Layer 5-42

Link layer, LANs: outline
5.1 introduction, 5.5 a day in the life
services of a web request
5.2 error detection,
correction
5.3 multiple access
protocols
5.4 LANs
 addressing, ARP
 Ethernet
 switches
 VLANS

Link Layer 5-43

Synthesis: a day in the life of a web
request
 journey down protocol stack complete!
 application, transport, network, link
 putting-it-all-together: synthesis!
 goal: identify, review, understand protocols
(at all layers) involved in seemingly simple
scenario: requesting www page
 scenario: student attaches laptop to campus
network, requests/receives
www.google.com

Link Layer 5-44

 A day in the life: scenario

browser DNS server

Comsat network
68.80.0.0/13

school network
68.80.2.0/24

web page

web server Google’s network

64.233.169.105 64.233.160.0/19

Link Layer 5-45

A day in the life… connecting to the
Internet
DHCP DHCP  connecting laptop needs to
DHCP UDP get its own IP address,
DHCP IP addr of first-hop router,
DHCP Eth addr of DNS server: use
Phy DHCP
DHCP
 DHCP request encapsulated
in UDP, encapsulated in IP,
DHCP DHCP encapsulated in 802.3
DHCP UDP Ethernet
DHCP IP
DHCP Eth router
Phy (runs DHCP)  Ethernet frame
broadcast (dest:
FFFFFFFFFFFF) on LAN,
received at router
 running DHCP
Ethernet server
demuxed to
IP demuxed, UDP
demuxed to DHCP
Link Layer 5-46
A day in the life… connecting to the
Internet
DHCP DHCP  DHCP server formulates
DHCP UDP DHCP ACK containing
DHCP IP client’s IP address, IP
DHCP Eth address of first-hop
Phy router for client, name &
IP address of DNS server
 encapsulation at DHCP
DHCP
server, frame forwarded
DHCP
DHCP UDP
(switch learning)
DHCP IP through LAN,
DHCP Eth router demultiplexing at client
Phy (runs DHCP)
DHCP
 DHCP client receives
DHCP ACK reply

Client now has IP address, knows name & addr of DNS

server, IP address of its first-hop router

Link Layer 5-47

A day in the life… ARP (before DNS,
before HTTP)
DNS DNS
 before sending HTTP
DNS UDP request, need IP address of
DNS
ARP
IP www.google.com: DNS
ARP query Eth
Phy  DNS query created, encapsulated in
UDP, encapsulated in IP,
encapsulated in Eth. To send frame
to router, need MAC address of
ARP
router interface: ARP
ARP reply Eth
Phy

router
 ARP query broadcast,
(runs DHCP) received by router, which
replies with ARP reply
giving MAC address of
 router interface
client now knows MAC
address of first hop router,
so can now send frame
containing DNS query
Link Layer 5-48
A day in the life… using DNSDNS
DNS UDP DNS server
DNS IP
DNS DNS DNS Eth
DNS UDP DNS Phy
DNS IP
DNS Eth
Phy
DNS
Comsat network
68.80.0.0/13

router
 IP datagram forwarded
(runs DHCP) from campus network into
 IP datagram containing comsat network, routed
DNS query forwarded (tables created by RIP,
via LAN switch from OSPF, IS-IS and/or BGP
client to 1st hop router  routing protocols)
demux’ed to DNS
to DNS server
server
 DNS server replies to
client with IP address of
www.google.com
Link Layer 5-49
A day in the life…TCP connection
carrying HTTP
HTTP
HTTP
SYNACK
SYN TCP
SYNACK
SYN IP
SYNACK
SYN Eth
Phy

 to send HTTP request,

client first opens TCP
socket to web server
router  TCP SYN segment (step 1 in
(runs DHCP) 3-way handshake) inter-
SYNACK
SYN TCP domain routed to web server
SYNACK
SYN IP
SYN
SYNACK Eth
Phy  web server responds
with TCP SYNACK (step 2
web server in 3-way handshake)
64.233.169.105  TCP connection established!

Link Layer 5-50

A day in the life… HTTP
request/reply
HTTP
HTTP HTTP
 web page finally (!!!) displayed
HTTP
HTTP TCP
HTTP
HTTP IP
HTTP
HTTP Eth
Phy

 HTTP request sent into

TCP socket
router  IP datagram containing
HTTP (runs DHCP)
HTTP
HTTP TCP
HTTP request routed to
HTTP IP www.google.com
HTTP Eth  web server responds
Phy with HTTP reply
(containing web page)
web server  IP datagram containing HTTP
64.233.169.105 reply routed back to client

Link Layer 5-51

Chapter 5: Summary
 principles behind data link layer
services:
 error detection, correction
 sharing a broadcast channel: multiple access
 link layer addressing
 synthesis: a day in the life of a web
request

Link Layer 5-52