ME1100 -

Thermodynamics
Teaching Assistants

Mr. Margam Ramprasad

Email: [email protected]
Mr. Pratik Debnath
Email: [email protected]

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1st Law of Thermodynamics
and PMM1
Natural and man-made changes must obey the laws of
thermodynamics
Law of energy conservation: first law of thermodynamics

What is PMM1?

Not restricted to Mechanical Engineering alone

• Chemical reaction will proceed or not

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Why Second Law?
• Therefore, a framework was needed to examine ideas (to
save the trouble of finding that a contraption does not work
the way the inventor thought it would). This motivated the
need and evolution of second law.

• Heat engines is an abstract concept that is the building block

for the second law.

• Before going to the definition of Heat engine, the concept of

a thermal reservoir is required.

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https://gifer.com/en/FE2x

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Thermal Reservoirs
• Thermal Reservoir is a large body of matter (in relative
proportion to any system under consideration) that has
infinite heat capacity.
• Any amount of heat transacted with the reservoir does not
lead to change in its temperature.
• Examples are ocean, lake, river, ambient atmosphere, 2-phase
materials, temperature-controlled furnaces, etc.
• Thermal reservoir that supplies heat is called source, and that
which absorbs heat is called sink.

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Heat engines
• Heat engine is a continuously operating device comprising
a thermodynamic system operating in a thermodynamic
cycle with heat and work interactions. Heat interactions
are with thermal reservoirs (source and sink)

• What is not a heat engine?

• One that does not operate continuously
• One that does not operate in a
thermodynamic cycle
• One that does not involve both
heat AND work interactions

• For continuous operation,

cyclic process is a must
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Heat engines
• Heat Engine is an abstract concept that can be
represented by a simple block diagram.

• The heat engine receives heat from the source,

converts part of it into work, and rejects the
remaining to the sink.

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Heat engines
• For the analysis of heat engines, no details are required
• No details of the thermodynamic cycle are required.
• No details of the engine material, its construction, shape, etc.
• No details of the thermal reservoirs, source and sink.
Only their temperatures are required to be specified.
• No details about the nature of heat transfer.
Only the quantities of heat transfer are required.
• No details of the nature/mechanism of work produced is
required.
Only the work quantity is required.
• With only the required variables/quantities specified
above, one can analyze a heat engine.
• For logical analysis, a simple block diagram representation
of the heat engine is sufficient.

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Heat engines
• Thermal Power Plant
• Source is the furnace
• Sink is ambient water body
or atmosphere
• Part of the work output from
turbine used to run the pump

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Heat engines
• In IC engines , aircraft engines, cycle is not actually
completed, but assumed to be completed externally.

• Moreover, the working fluid does not remain the same.

Fuel is added to air and becomes
combustion products.

• However, approximations can

be made to analyze them as
heat engines.

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Direct engines & reverse engines

• Conversion of Heat into Work – Direct

Engines
Eg., Power Plants, Auto/Aircraft
Engines

• Using work to transfer heat from cold

bodies to hot ones – Reverse Engines
Eg., Refrigerators, Air-conditioners

• Block diagram looks similar, except

that the arrows are reversed.

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Refrigerators and heat pumps
The transfer of heat from a
low-temperature medium to a
high-temperature one requires
special devices called
refrigerators

The working fluid used in the

refrigeration cycle is called a
refrigerant.

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Heat engines
• Thermal efficiency is ratio of the quantity we want
to maximize (the work output) to the quantity we
want to spend the least (heat input)

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Quantifying the performance of reverse
engines (refrigerators, heat pumps)

• One would like to maximize heat transferred

• from the lower temperature reservoir (refrigerator)
• to the higher temperature reservoir (heat pump)

• One would like to minimize the work spent for achieving this

• Since the ratio can exceed 1, we do not call it efficiency, but

term it as “Coefficient of Performance” (COP)

• COPRef and COPHeat Pump

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COPRef and COPHP

In the block diagram of the

reverse engine, when we are
interested in QH (eg., room
heating), we call it
heat pump and when we
focus on QL, we call it
refrigerator

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Examples of heat pump and
refrigerator

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Second Law Statements

• Independently stated by Lord Kelvin, Max Planck and

Rudolf Clausius

• Two equivalent statements

• Kelvin-Planck Statement
• Clausius Statement

• Similar to First Law, there is no proof, but continued to

be in force since all observed events obey them and
since there is no evidence otherwise

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Kelvin-Planck Statement

• It is impossible to construct a device that will operate in a

thermodynamic cycle and produce a net amount of work
by exchange of heat with a single reservoir

• That is, two reservoirs are required,

the second one being the sink where
some heat is to be rejected

• It implies, thermal efficiency of

100% is unachievable (even ignoring
dissipative, effects like friction, viscosity)

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Clausius Statement

• It is impossible to construct a device that

operates in a thermodynamic cycle and
produces no effect other than the transfer
of heat from a lower-temperature body to
a higher-temperature body

• While K-P statement refers to direct

engines (heat engines), Clausius
statement pertains
to reverse heat engines (heat pumps and
refrigerators)

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Kelvin-Planck and Clausius Statements

Violation of
Kelvin-Planck
statement leads
to the violation of
Clausius
statement also!

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Another example
• Violation of Clausius statement leads to the violation of
Kelvin-Planck statement too!

• Hence, the two statements are equivalent

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Reversible and Irreversible Processes
• Since we know that we cannot attain 100% efficiency, we
come to the next question, “what is the best efficiency one
can get?”
• To answer this, we need to learn the concept of reversible
and irreversible processes.
• A reversible process is defined as a process that retraces its
path if the cause is reversed, without leaving any trace in the
surroundings.
• This is possible when the process is a quasi-equilibrium or
quasi-static process.
• So, all intermediate states are traversed by the system during
a reversible process. Therefore, we denote the process using
a solid line. In a irreversible process, the actual path is
unknown.

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Nature of Reversible processes

• Reversible process
delivers the maximum
amount of work and
consumes the least
amount of
work

• Irreversible process
delivers lesser work and
consumes more work

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 Reversible
process

1 3
2

1/
2/
Irreversible
process

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Causes of Irreversibility
• Non-Equilibrium processes
 Unrestricted/partially resisted expansion
 Heat transfer through finite temperature gradient
 Combustion/Chemical reaction
• Dissipation
 Friction (solid-solid),
 Friction in solid-fluid, fluid-fluid (viscous skin-friction and pressure
drag)
 Plastic deformation of materials, Hysteresis effects
 Resistance to flow of electricity
• Mixing of two or more substances
• It takes energy to separate substances that are mixed

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Internal and External Irreversibility
• Irreversibilities occurring within the system
boundary are called internal irreversibilities, and
those outside the boundary are external
irreversibilities.

Internally
Both internally reversible
and externally but with
reversible external
irreversibility
(heat transfer
with finite
temperature
gradient)

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Best engine
• If all irreversibilities are avoided, we can conceive the
best engine possible. Therefore, a reversible engine is
the best for a given pair of reservoirs (source and sink).

• Reversible engine has the maximum efficiency.

• All reversible engines have the same efficiency.

• These are called Carnot principles

• Can be proven.

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Carnot Cycle

• Sadi Carnot* (June 1, 1796 –

Aug. 24, 1832) conceived the
Carnot Cycle in 1824

• Carnot Cycle is a thermodynamic

cycle that avoids all irreversible
processes

• Pioneer who understood second

law 25 years before the 2nd law
statements were formally stated

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Carnot Cycle
• Carnot cycle is a thermodynamic cycle that avoids all
irreversible processes

• Simple Carnot cycle comprising isothermal processes

followed by adiabatic processes

• Heat transfer processes (heat addition and heat

rejection) also reversible, using isothermal heat
transfer

• Since all processes are reversible, the heat engine

would be reversible heat engine yielding the maximum
efficiency for an engine operating between the given
pair of source/sink reservoirs 30
Carnot Cycle
• 1-2: Adiabatic compression
• 2-3: Isothermal heat addition
from a reservoir at
temperature TH
• 3-4: Adiabatic expansion
• 4-1: Isothermal heat
rejection to a reservoir at
temperature TC

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Carnot Cycle
Carnot cycle analysis assuming that the working fluid
is an ideal gas
Process Equation Q W ΔU
1 – 2 (adiabatic) = 0

2 – 3 (isothermal) = 0

3 – 4 (adiabatic) = 0

4 – 1 (isothermal) = 0

Net Work done = + + +

= + + +

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Carnot Cycle Efficiency

𝑉3 𝑉3 𝑃2
Heat Supplied = 𝑃 2 𝑉 2 ln = 𝑚𝑅 𝑇 2 ln =𝑚𝑅 𝑇 2 ln
𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑃3
𝑃2 𝑃1 𝑃1
𝑚𝑅 𝑇 2 ln − 𝑚𝑅 𝑇 1 ln 𝑇 1 ln
𝑃3 𝑃4 𝑃4
Efficiency = = 1−
𝑃2 𝑃2
𝑚𝑅 𝑇 2 ln 𝑇 2 ln
𝑃3 𝑃3

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Carnot Cycle Efficiency

Processes

( ) ( )
1 1
𝑃2 𝑉 3 𝑉 3 𝑉 4 𝑉 1 𝑃4 𝛾 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝛾 =
= = ∙ ∙ = ∙ ∙
𝑃3 𝑉2 𝑉 4 𝑉 1 𝑉 2 𝑃3 𝑃4 𝑃1 =

( ) ( )
1 1 =
𝑃2 1− 𝑃1 1−

𝑃3
𝛾
=
𝑃4
𝛾
( ) ( )
𝑃2
𝑃3
=
𝑃1
𝑃4 =

𝑃1
𝑇 1 ln
𝑃4 𝑇1 𝑇𝐶
Carnot Efficiency = 1− =1 − =1−
𝑃2 𝑇2 𝑇𝐻
𝑇 2 ln
𝑃3

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Carnot Principles

 The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the

efficiency of a reversible one operating between the same two
reservoirs
 The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between the
same two reservoirs are the same.

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Absolute temperature scale
• Carnot efficiency is
• Efficiency we see from Heat engine schematic is
• Also, the source/sink of the heat engine are quantified
only by their temperatures TC and TH.
• So, how are these related? That is, (QC/QH) and TC ,TH
that
Lord Kelvin considered this question and concluded that
(QC/QH) can be any arbitrary function of TC ,TH.

• Lord Kelvin found that if absolute temperature scale is

used, that is (oC – 273.15), then the numerical values of
efficiencies match.

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Absolute temperature scale
• Therefore, the absolute temperature scale (oC – 273.15), is also
called as Kelvin scale in his honour.

• This is the same absolute scale discovered centuries earlier

from gas thermometers using ideal gases.

• Thus, the absolute scale has two origins (one from gas
thermometry and the other from heat engine and second law
concept).

• This also leads to the concept of third law of thermodynamics

that “absolute zero is unattainable.”

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 Temperature scale obtained by gas thermometers
• Temperature scales obtained by constant pressure or constant
volume gas thermometers using ideal gases
p or
v
Gas ‘A’
Gas
‘B’ Gas
‘C’

- 0 T oC
273.15

• Irrespective of the ideal gas, X-intercept of -273.15 was obtained

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Reversible Heat Engine

1000K

= 100 kJ

= 0.7
= 70 kJ
= 0.7
= 30 kJ

300K

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