Chapter

One

Network
Devices
 Network Devices
Computer networking devices are units that mediate data in a
computer network and are also called network equipment.
Units that are the last receiver or generate data are called hosts
or data terminal equipment.
Network Models It was developed by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO).
 It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
 CON’T
It is a model for a computer protocol architecture and as a
framework for developing protocol standards.
 An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.

Advantages
Why layered communication?
What are the layers?
What does data encapsulation and decapsulation?
What are common protocols in each layer?
Repeaters

When a signal travels through a medium its energy is lost,

resulting in decrease in the amplitude of the wave, for the
wave to travel longer distance there is a need to regenerate
the signal which can be transmitted forward.
 This is done using a repeater.

A repeater is a combination of a receiver, amplifier and a

transmitter. A repeater, receives the signal, amplifies it and
then retransmits it forward.
 CON’T
 The number of nodes on a network and the length of cable used
 Influence the quality of communication on the network

Attenuation

 The degradation of signal clarity

Repeaters
 Work against attenuation by repeating signals that they

receive on a network
 Typically cleaning and regenerating the digital transmission in
the process. 5
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CON’T

 Repeaters work in the Physical layer (layer 1)

 On optical networks, signal amplification is handled
by
optical repeaters
 Some repeaters can be used to connect two
physically different types of cabling

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Hub
 Generic connection device used to tie several networking
cables together to create a link between different stations on
a network.
 The basic function of a hub is to take data from one of the
connected devices and forward it to all the other ports on the
hub.
 That use twisted-pair cabling to connect devices.
 A hub generally has a port designated as an uplink port that
enables the hub to be connected to another hub to create
larger networks.
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Active hubs
 Amplify or repeat signals that pass through them.
 Regenerate a signal before forwarding it to all the ports
on the device and requires a power supply.

 Small workgroup hubs normally use an external power

adapter, but on larger units the power supply is built in.

A hub does not perform any processing on the data that

it forwards.
Passive hub
 Merely connects cables on a network and provides no
signal regeneration
A hub does nothing except provide a pathway for the
electrical signals to travel along. Such a device is called
a passive hub.
 CON’T
 The bottom of the networking food chain

 Connect device and create larger networks

 Small hubs 5-8 ports (workgroup hubs)

 Some hubs have more ports, up to 32 normally

 Direct data packets to all devices connected to the
hub - shared bandwidth
This method of operation is inefficient because, in most cases, the
data is intended for only one of the connected devices.
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 Multistation access unit:
A Multi station Access Unit (MSAU) is a special type of hub used
for token ring networks.
MSAU only refers to token ring networks.
 Network segmentation
Segmentation
The breaking down of a single heavily populated network segment
into smaller segments, populated by fewer nodes or collision
domains.
Segment
Part of a network that is divided logically or physically from the rest
of the network

When network administrators place too many nodes on the same

network segment causes the number of collisions to increase 16
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Bridges
 Bridge is a product that connects a local area network (LAN) to
another local area network that uses the same protocol.

 Operate at the Data Link layer of the OSI model

 Filter traffic between network segments by examining the

destination MAC address
 Based on the destination MAC address, the bridge either
forwards or discards the frame
 Reduce network traffic by keeping local traffic on the local
segment
Broadcast frame: frame destined for all computers on the network 17
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Transparent bridges
 Also called learning bridges
Because they build a table of MAC addresses as they receive

frames
 They “learn” which addresses are on which segments
 The bridge uses the source MAC addresses
to determine which addresses are on which segments
By determining a frame’s origin, the bridge knows where to

send frames in the future

 Ethernet networks mainly use transparent bridges

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Source-routing bridges
Rely on the source of the frame transmission to provide the
routing information
 The source computer determines the best path by sending
out explorer frames

The source includes the routing information returned by its

explorer frames in the frame sent across the network
 The bridge uses this information to build its table
 Token Ring networks mainly use source-routing bridges.

This type of bridge is used to prevent looping

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Translational bridges
 Can connect networks with different architectures,
such as Ethernet and Token Ring.
 are useful to connect segments running at different speeds or
using different architectures, such as token Ring and Ethernet
networks.

These bridges appear as:

 Transparent bridges to an Ethernet host

 Source-routing bridges to a Token Ring host

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Advantages and disadvantages of bridges
Advantages
 Can extend a network by acting as a repeater

 Can reduce network traffic on a segment by

subdividing network communications.
 Increase the available bandwidth to individual
nodes because fewer nodes share a collision domain.
 Reduce collisions

 Some bridges connect networks using different media types

and architectures.

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Disadvantages
 Slower than repeaters and hubs
 Extra processing by viewing MAC addresses
 Forward broadcast frames indiscriminately, so they do not
filter broadcast traffic
 More expensive than repeaters and hubs

Broadcast storm
When two or more stations engage in the transmission of
excessive broadcast traffic

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 Switches
 Switches are the connectivity points of an Ethernet network.
 Devices connect to switches via twisted-pair cabling, one cable for
each device.
 Whereas a hub forwards the data it receives to all of the ports on
the device, a switch forwards it only to the port that connects to
the destination device.
 A switch must be able to read the MAC address of each frame it
receives.
 This information allows switches to repeat incoming data frames
only to the computer or computers to which a frame is addressed.
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 CON’T
 It does this by learning the MAC address of the devices attached
to it.

 By forwarding data only to the connection that should receive it,

the switch can improve network performance by reducing the
number of collisions on the network.

 The lack of collisions enables switches to communicate with

devices in full-duplex mode.

 Full-duplex transmissions speeds are double that of a standard,

half-duplex, connection.
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The method of switching dictates how the switch deals with the
data it receives.

1. Cut-through: In a cut-through switching environment, the packet

begins to be forwarded as soon as it is received.

 This method is very fast, but creates the possibility of errors

being propagated through the network, as there is no error
checking.

2. Store-and-forward: unlike cut-through, in a store-and-forward

switching environment,

 The entire packet is received and error checked before being

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forwarded.
The upside of Store-and-forward method is that errors are not
propagated through the network.
The downside is that the error checking process takes a relatively
long time, and store-and-forward switching is considerably slower as
a result.
3. Fragment Free: To take advantage of the error checking of store-
and-forward switching, but still offer performance levels nearing that
of cut-through switching,
 In a Fragment Free, enough of the packet is read so that the switch
can determine whether the packet has been involved in a collision.
 As soon as the collision status has been determined, the packet is
forwarded. 27
 CON’T
Operate at the Data Link layer of the OSI model

Increase network performance by reducing the number of frames

transmitted to the rest of the network

Switch opens a virtual circuit between the source and the

destination

Forward only to the port that connects to the destination device

– knows MAC address

– Match the MAC address in the data it receives

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 Advantages and disadvantages of switches
Advantages
 Switches increase available network bandwidth
 Switches reduce the workload on individual computers
 Switches increase network performance
 Networks that include switches experience fewer frame
collisions because switches create collision domains for each
connection (a process called micro segmentation)
 Switches connect directly to workstations

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Disadvantages
 Switches are significantly more expensive than bridges
 Network connectivity problems can be difficult to
trace through a switch
 Broadcast traffic may be troublesome

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 Routers
Operate at the Network layer of the OSI model

Provide filtering and network traffic control on LANs and WANs

 Can connect multiple segments and multiple networks

Internetworks

 Networks connected by multiple routers

 Similar to switches and bridges in that they segment a network

and filter traffic
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 Routers use the logical address
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 Brouters
Brouter

 Hybrid device (a combination of router and bridge. )

 Functions as both a bridge for non-routable protocols and a

router for routable protocols

 Provides the best attributes of both a bridge and a router

 Operates at both the Data Link and Network layers and can
replace separate bridges and routers.

 A Brouter transmits two types of traffic at the exact same time:

bridged traffic and routed traffic.
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Gateways

 A gateway is a device used to connect networks using different

protocols.
 Gateways operate at the network layer of the OSI model.
 Usually a combination of hardware and software
 Translates between different protocol suites
 So that actual data content can be converted into a format the
destination can process.
 Creates the most latency

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NICs (Network Interface Card)
 NIC is a hardware card installed in a computer so it can
communicate on a network.
 The network adapter provides one or more ports for the network
cable to connect to.
 Every networked computer must also have a network adapter
driver, which controls the network adapter.
 Each network adapter driver is configured to run with a certain
type of network adapter.

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MODEM
 A modem, short for modulator/demodulator.
 Is a device that converts the digital signals generated by a
computer into analog signals that can travel over conventional
phone lines.
 Because standard telephone lines use analog signals, and
computers digital signals,
 A sending modem must modulate its digital signals into analog
signals. The computers modem on the receiving end must then
demodulate the analog signals into digital signals

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 A Channel Service Unit/
Digital Service Unit (CSU/DSU)

 is a device that converts the digital signal format used on LANs

into one used on WANs.
 Such translation is necessary because the networking
technologies used on WANs are different from those used on
LANs.
 Many router manufacturers are now incorporating CSU/DSU
functionality into their products.

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Firewalls

 A firewall is a networking device, either hardware or software

based.
 That controls access to your organization’s network.
 Firewalls are typically placed at entry/exit points of a network.
 The firewall is configured on the server to allow or permit certain
types of network traffic.
 In small offices and for regular home use, a firewall is commonly
installed on the local system and configured to control traffic.

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CON’T
 Hardware firewalls are used in networks of all sizes today.
 Hardware firewalls are readily available and often combined
with other devices today.
 For example, many broadband routers and wireless access
points have firewall functionality built in.

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