19EI502

INDUSTRIAL INSTRUMENTATION – I
 UNIT I
MEASUREMENT OF FORCE,
TORQUE AND SPEED
 Load cell
• A load cell is a transducer that is used to create an electrical
signal whose magnitude is directly proportional to the force being
measured. The various load cell types include hydraulic,
pneumatic and strain gauge.
 Hydraulic load cell
• The hydraulic load cell uses a conventional piston and cylinder
arrangement with the piston placed in a thin elastic diaphragm.
• The piston doesn't actually come in contact with the load cell.
Mechanical stops are placed to prevent over strain of the
diaphragm when the loads exceed certain limit.
• The load cell is completely filled with oil. When the load is
applied on the piston, the movement of the piston and the
diaphragm results in an increase of oil pressure.
• This pressure is then transmitted to a hydraulic pressure gauge
via a high pressure hose. The gauge's Bourdon tube senses the 4
pressure and registers it on the dial
Hydraulic Load Cell
Components
• Hydraulic load cells have the following components:
• An elastic diaphragm
• A piston connected to a load platform
• Hydraulic fluid which is usually oil or sometimes water
• Pressure gauge or gauges
• A tube connecting the chamber to the pressure gauge
• Steel housing for the assembly
Hydraulic load cell

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 Pneumatic load cell - I
• The Load cell is designed to automatically regulate the balancing
pressure.
• Air pressure is applied to one end of the diaphragm and it
escapes through the nozzle placed at the bottom of the load cell.
• A pressure gauge is attached with the load cell to measure the
pressure inside the cell.
• The deflection of the diaphragm affects the airflow through the
nozzle as well as the pressure inside the chamber.
Pneumatic load cell

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Pneumatic load cell - II
Pneumatic load cells function similarly to their hydraulic
counterparts in that they convert fluid pressure into a load
measurement.
However, the pressurized fluid in a pneumatic load cell is a type
of gas, oftentimes air.
The force to be measured is applied to a loading platform on one
side of a diaphragm, and a pressure supply regulator introduces
a pressurized gas to a chamber on the opposite side of the
diaphragm to balance out the force.
A nozzle connected to a pressure gauge allows some of the
pressurized gas to escape the chamber. The pressure of the gas
flowing through this nozzle is measured. This pressure is
proportional to the force applied.
Pneumatic Load Cell Components

• A loading platform to apply the force

• A steel chamber filled with pressurized gas or air
• An elastic diaphragm connected to the loading platform that
seals the chamber
• An air supply regulator
• Nozzle (bleed valve)
• Pressure gauge
 Strain gauge type load cell
• A Strain Gauge is a device used to measure the strain of an
object.
The Load Cell setup

•The basic setup to measure weight using a strain gauge.

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Wheatstone bridge circuit
To get a voltage proportional to weight

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Piezoelectric Transducers
Piezoelectric sensors operate based on the piezoelectric effect.
The piezoelectric effect is a natural property of materials such as
quartz crystal and other ceramics.

Piezoelectricity is produced when this polarized crystalline

material is stressed or deformed. The stress then causes a shift
in the orientation of the internal dipoles of the material. It is
similar to di-electricity, which occurs when a charge develops
from a shift of electrons in an insulator.
• Piezoelectric sensors can quantify force, pressure, and
displacement.
• Metallic electrodes bonded to the surface of the material form
a measurable net charge.
• For proper function, the design must place these electrodes
perpendicular to the applied force.
• Both compression and tension forces create this piezoelectric
effect. Compression forces create an opposite polarity to
tension forces. The output voltage is directly proportional to
the applied force.
Piezoelectric Transducer Components

• A loading platform or system to apply the force

• Metallic electrodes bonded to the piezoelectric material
• The piezoelectric material
• Output wires to measure a change in voltage caused by the
change in charge
The piezoelectric effect happens for dynamic forces.
Once a force becomes static, the output of the sensor returns to
zero.
Therefore these transducers lend themselves to applications
requiring the measurement of a transient force.
 Piezoresistive Load cells
• When a force is exerted on certain crystalline materials, electric
charges are formed on the crystal surface in proportion to the
change of applied force.
• To make use of the device, a charge amplifier is required to give
a signal that is proportional to the applied force and big enough
to measure.

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 Piezoresistive Load cells

• The first transducers to apply the piezoelectric effect for

measurement used naturally grown quartz but today mostly
artificial quartz is used.
• Because of this these devices are often known as quartz force
transducers, though here more the general term piezoelectric
crystal will be used.

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Piezoresistive Load cells

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Magnetoelastic load cell
• Principle : “Magneto elastic principle” – Villari effect.
• When a ferromagnetic material undergoes a mechanical stress,
it changes the magnetic permeability of the material.
• Depends on permeability property of magnet
• “the measure of the ability of a material to support formation
of magnetic field within itself”
• Also called as “Pressductor”

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Magnetoelastic load cell
•The level of change in permeability property is proportional to
applied force/stress

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 TORQUE
• Torque – Defined as the turning or twisting moment of a force
about an axis”.
• Torque is a measure of how much a force acting on an object
causes that object to rotate.
• “The force that tends to cause rotation”
• Unit: Radian /sec
T= FD
Where T=Torque ,
F=Force
D=perpendicular distance from the axis of
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rotation of the line of action of the force
DIFFERENT METHODS OF TORQUE
MEASUREMENT
Torque:
• “The force which tends to change the linear motion or rotation of a body”.
• “It is also defined as the turning or twisting moment of a force about an
axis”.
• “The force that tends to cause rotation”
• Unit: Radian /sec

T= FD

• Where T=Torque F=Force D=perpendicular distance from the axis of 27

rotation of the line of action of the force
METHODS OF MEASUREMENT:

a. strain gauge (In-Line Rotating torque sensor)

b. Relative angular twist. (Proximity torque sensor)
i. Magnetic pick up type
ii. Optical stroboscopic type
c. In-Line stationary torque sensor

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IN-LINE ROTATING TORQUE SENSOR -
STRAIN GAUGE
PRINCIPLE:
• When a strain gauge is stretched its resistance will change. The
change in resistance is proportional to applied torque. Due to
unbalance in bridge (change in resistance) an A.C voltage is
developed in output side.
• When torque is applied to shaft, there will be twist in shaft in
turn which changes the dimension of strain gauge that results in
change in resistance. The change in resistance will be
proportional to the applied toque.
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31
MAGNETIC PICK-UP TYPE
PRINCIPLE:
• When shaft rotates due to applied torque, the tooth of wheel
passes the magnetic pick-up sensor due to which there exists a
phase shift between the pulses. The phase difference is
converted to time difference of two pulses which is proportional
to applied torque.

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 OPTICAL STROBOSCOPIC TYPE
PRINCIPLE:
• When a shaft is connected between a driving engine and driven
load, a twist occurs on shaft between the ends. The angle of twist
is measured and calibrated in terms of torque.

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 CONSTRUCTION & WORKING:
• The shaft is connected between driving engine and driven load.
• Two drums one with torque calibrated scale and another with
pointer are attached on either side of the shaft.
• A stroboscope is arranged to measure the rotating shaft.
• Due to applied torque, an angle of twist is experienced by the
shaft which is proportional to torque when calibrated.
• The angular twist is observed on torque calibrated scale
corresponding to position of the pointer.
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Principle of mechanical torsion meter

• When a shaft is connected between a driving engine and

driven load, a twist (angular displacement) occurs on the shaft
between its ends. This angle of twist is measured and
calibrated in terms of torque.
Construction of mechanical torsion meter

• A shaft which has two drums and two flanges mounted on its
ends as shown in the diagram.
• One drum carries a pointer and other drum has a torque
calibrated scale.
• A stroboscope is used to take readings on a rotating shaft.
Operation of mechanical torsion meter:

• One end of the shaft of the torsion meter is connected to the

driving engine and its other end to the driven load.
• An angle of twist is experienced by the shaft along its length
between the two flanges which is proportional to the torque
applied to the shaft.
• A measure of this angle of twist becomes a measure of torque
when calibrated.
• The angular twist caused is observed on the torque calibrated
scale corresponding to the position of the pointer. As the scale
on the drum is rotating, reading cannot be taken directly.
Hence a stroboscope is used. The stroboscope’s flashing light
is made to fall on the scale and the flashing frequency is
adjusted till a stationary image is obtained. Then the scale
reading is noted.
 SPEED MEASUREMENT
• MOTION MEASUREMENT – displacement, velocity (speed) and
acceleration measurement.
• Speed is defined as rate of change of position of an object with
respect to time.
• Speed = velocity
• Velocity is the rate of change of displacement,
V = dx/dt

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Units of speed

• Meters per second ( ms−1 or m/s), the SI derived unit;

• Kilometers per hour (km/h);
• Miles per hour (mph);
• Knots (nautical miles per hour, kn or kt);
• Feet per second (fps or ft/s);
• Mach number, speed divided by the speed of sound;
• The speed of light in vacuum (c) is one of the natural units:
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• Revolution per minute (rpm)
Types of Tachometer:

1. Mechanical tachometer: Associated only with mechanical

units to measure speed
2. Electric tachometer: Associated with transducer for converting
rotational speed to electrical quantity. The electric signal is
proportional to speed.

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CAPACITIVE TACHOMETER:
• PRINCIPLE: Capacitor – charges & discharges.
• The principle of charging a capacitor and discharging through
a meter continuously.
• If charging and discharging is controlled by speed of the device
which is to be measured, then the average discharge current
would be proportional to the speed.
• Average discharge current (I) is given by I = RCω

• where R – resistance, C – capacitance, ω - speed of rotation 48

(rpm)
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Eddy Current
• Eddy currents are currents induced in conductors, when a
conductor is exposed to a changing magnetic field due to
relative motion of the field source and conductor; or due to
variations of the field with time.
• This can cause a circulating flow of electrons, or a current,
within the body of the conductor.
• These circulating eddies of current have inductance and thus
induce magnetic fields. These fields can cause repulsive,
attractive,propulsion and drag effects.
 EDDY CURRENT / DRAG CUP TYPE / MAGNETIC
DRAG TACHOMETER
• PRINCIPLE:
• “An emf is induced due to change in magnetic flux”
• An analog signal is produced in form of continuous drag due
to eddy current induced in the cup which is proportional to
speed.

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Electrical Tachometer
Definition: The tachometer use for measuring the rotational
speed or angular velocity of the machine which is coupled to it.
It works on the principle of relative motion between the
magnetic field and shaft of the coupled device. The relative
motion induces the EMF in the coil which is placed between the
constant magnetic field of the permanent magnet. The develops
EMF is directly proportional to the speed of the shaft.
• Mechanical and electrical are the two types of the tachometer.
The mechanical tachometer measures the speed of shaft
regarding revolution per minutes.
• The electrical tachometer converts the angular velocity into an
electrical voltage. The electrical tachometer has more
advantages over the mechanical tachometer. Thus it is mostly
used for measuring the rotational speed of the shaft.
Depends on the natures of the induced voltage the electrical
tachometer is categorized into two types.
• AC Tachometer Generator
• DC Tachometer Generator
DC Tachometer Generator
• Permanent magnet, armature, commutator, brushes, variable
resistor, and the moving coil voltmeter are the main parts of
the DC tachometer generator.
• The machine whose speed is to be measured is coupled with
the shaft of the DC tachometer generator.
DC Tachometer Generator
• The DC tachometer works on the principle that when the
closed conductor moves in the magnetic field, EMF induces in
the conductor.
• The magnitude of the induces emf depends on the flux link
with the conductor and the speed of the shaft.
D.C TACHO GENERATOR:

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D.C TACHO GENERATOR:
• Most tachogenerators used today are brushed DC types with a
permanent magnet stator and a wound, rotating armature.
• One end of the armature is attached to the object whose
speed is being measured, and the armature rotates within the
magnetic field of the stator.
• As the measured object rotates, the rotation of the
tachogenerator armature induces a voltage, and the
amplitude of the voltage is proportional to the speed of
rotation.
D.C TACHO GENERATOR:
• A commutator converts the alternating current generated by
rotation into direct current that can be interpreted by a
voltmeter circuit and converted to speed.

• If the direction of rotation changes, the voltage polarity

changes, so DC tachogenerators can determine both speed
and direction of rotation.
Advantages of the DC Generator
• The following are the advantages of the DC Tachometer.
• The polarity of the induces voltages indicates the direction of
rotation of the shaft.
• The conventional DC type voltmeter is used for measuring the
induces voltage.
Disadvantages of DC Generator
• The commutator and brushes require the periodic
maintenance.
• The output resistance of the DC tachometer is kept high as
compared to the input resistance. If the large current is
induced in the armature conductor, the constant field of the
permanent magnet will be distorted.
A.C TACHO GENERATOR PRINCIPLE
• “An emf is induced due to change in permanent magnetic flux.
The induced emf is proportional to flux and rotational speed”

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• The DC tachometer generator uses the commutator and
brushes which have many disadvantages.
• The AC tachometer generator designs for reducing the
problems.
• The AC tachometer has stationary armature and rotating
magnetic field.
• Thus, the commutator and brushes are absent in AC
tachometer generator.
• The rotating magnetic field induces the EMF in the stationary
coil of the stator.
• The amplitude and frequency of the induced emf are
equivalent to the speed of the shaft.
• Thus, either amplitude or frequency is used for measuring the
angular velocity.
• The below mention circuit is used for measuring the speed of
the rotor by considering the amplitude of the induced voltage.

• The induces voltages are rectified and then passes to the

capacitor filter for smoothening the ripples of rectified
voltages.
STROBOSCOPE
• PRINCIPLE:
• A stroboscope having a scale that reads in flashes per minute
or in revolutions per minute; the speed of a rotating device is
measured by directing the stroboscopic lamp on the device,
adjusting the flashing rate until the device appears to be
stationary, then reading the speed directly on the scale of the
instrument.

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A simple Stroboscope arrangement

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 UNIT- II
MEASUREMENT OF
ACCELERATION, VIBRATION
AND DENSITY
Acceleration

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity of an object with

respect to time.

An object's acceleration is the net result of any and all forces

acting on the object, as described by Newton's Second Law.[1]

The SI unit for acceleration is metre per second squared (m s−2).

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Accelerometers
Accelerometers are devices that measure acceleration, which is
the rate of change of the velocity of an object.

They measure in meters per second squared (m/s2) or in G-forces

(g). A single G-force for us here on planet Earth is equivalent to
9.8 m/s2

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Seismic – Displacement Sensing Accelerometer

Basic Principle
• When a spring – mass – damper system is subjected to
acceleration, the mass is displaced, and this displacement of the
mass is proportional to the acceleration. Hence a measure of
displacement of the mass becomes a measure of acceleration.

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Accelerometer

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Operation
• The accelerometer is fitted on to the structure whose acceleration is to be
measured.

• Due the acceleration, the seismic mass experience a displacement and this
displacement of the mass is proportional to the acceleration.

• As the mass is connected to an electric displacement transducer, the output

of the transducer depends on the extent – to which the mass is displaced.

• Hence the output of the transducer is calibrated to give a direct indication of

the acceleration characteristics of the structure.
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LVDT ACCELEROMETER

• LVDT :The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) (also

called linear variable displacement transformer is a type of
electrical transformer used for measuring linear displacement
(position).

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LVDT- Linear Variable Differential Transformer

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Seismic Instrument using a Voltage –divider
Potentiometer

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Capacitive Accelerometer

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Capacitive Accelerometer

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Piezoelectric accelerometer

A piezoelectric accelerometer is an accelerometer that employs

the piezoelectric effect of certain materials to measure dynamic
changes in mechanical variables (e.g., acceleration, vibration,
and mechanical shock).
• As with all transducers, piezoelectric convert one form of energy
into another and provide an electrical signal in response to a
quantity, property, or condition that is being measured.
• Using the general sensing method upon which all accelerometers
are based, acceleration acts upon a seismic mass that is
restrained by a spring or suspended on a cantilever beam, and
converts a physical force into an electrical signal.
• Before the acceleration can be converted into an electrical
quantity it must first be converted into either
a force or displacement. This conversion is done via the mass
spring system
Mechanical type vibration instruments

Vibration is the back and forth or repetitive motion of an object

from its point of rest.

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• When a force is applied to the mass, it stretches the spring and moves
the weight to the lower limit.
• When the force is removed, the stored energy in the spring causes the
weight to move upward through the position of rest to its upper limit.
• Here, the mass stops and reverses direction traveling back through the
position of rest to the lower limit.
• In a friction-free system the mass would continue this motion
indefinitely.
• All real systems are damped, that is they will gradually come to their
rest position after several cycles of motion, unless acted upon by an
external force
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90
Vibration Pickups

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