Computer Organization

Architecture
• CPU:
– the Central Processing Unit, is the brain of the
computer.
– This highly compact and powerful chip controls all
the processes inside the computer
• ALU:
– the Arithmetic Logic Unit, is a circuit that is part of
the CPU and does all the arithmetic and logical
calculations.
 Architecture
• CU:
– the Control Unit, is the control circuit of the CPU.
– Fetches/extracts each instruction from memory;
– Decodes/transforms them into several commands/signals/steps (that
are passed to the ALU or I/O or other components in the CPU for
execution);
– Controls the movements of data within the CPU;
– Generates the clock pulses that regulates speed of the instruction cycle;
– Generates control signals for all hardware components to regulate their
activities;
– Synchronizes all the operations of the CPU;

• Registers:
– they are small, very fast circuits that store addresses or intermediate
values from calculations or instructions inside the CPU.
 Architecture
• Bus - A collection of wires through which data is
transmitted from one part of a computer to
another.
– Data bus- Moves data in and out of memory by the
control unit
– Address bus- Used for accessing the memory address
using control unit.
– Control bus - carries commands from the CPU and
returns status signals from the devices. For example, if
the data is being read or written to the device the
appropriate line (read or write) will be active
 Architecture
• Data bus width determines the amount of data
which can be transferred between memory and
CPU - Byte/ Word/ 32 bit/ 64 bit etc.
• Every memory location has a unique address
• Von Neumann architecture
– Stored Program Concept
– use memory to store the information, which includes
both program and data
– No difference in the storage of data and instruction
 Architecture
• Basic registers in CPU
– Program counter- Holds the address for the next instruction
in the sequence which is automatically incremented.
– Memory Address Register- Holds the memory address of
the data or the instruction currently read from/written to
the RAM.
– Memory data register- Holds the content read from or
written to the RAM. Connected to the data bus.
– Instruction register- Holds the binary code of the
instruction about to be executed. Eg ADD, MULT etc.
– Accumulator holds the intermediate values of the
operation/calculation
 Primary Memory
• Primary memory is memory that is directly accessed by the
CPU
• There are three types of primary memory
• RAM
• Stands for random access memory
• Consists of one or more memory modules (extended)
• It is volatile memory
• Holds the programs/data currently being processed.
• All data and instructions loaded onto the RAM before it gets
processed in the CPU
• After processing in CPU, data is copied back to RAM (for
display or storage)
• Contents can be altered.
 Primary Memory
• ROM
• Cannot be modified
• Permanently stores the data
• Non volatile
• Used to store the start up instructions or BIOS of the
computer
• Comparison
• RAM- large physical chip size/ higher capacity/expensive
whilst ROM- small size/ less capacity/cheaper;
• The CPU can access the data stored in RAM whilst the
CPU cannot access the data stored on ROM (unless the
data is stored in RAM)
 Cache Memory
• A type of small, high-speed memory inside the CPU
used to hold frequently used data/instructions, so that
the CPU needs to access the much slower RAM less
frequently.
• When the microprocessor processes data / instruction,
it looks first in the cache memory and if it is found
there from a previous reading, then it does not have to
read from RAM which saves time
• Cache memory is closer to CPU/faster to access than
main memory/incorporated on the chip; By holding
recently/frequently used data and instructions in cache;
Execution of program/fetching instructions and data is
 Summary
• RAM stores data and instructions currently in
use
• ROM stores permanent instructions
• Cache stores frequently used instructions to
speed up execution
• Primary memory faster, lesser capacity
 Machine instruction cycle
• Alternate Names
– Fetch-and-execute cycle
– Fetch-decode-execute cycle
– FDX
• Involves the:
– CPU
– ALU
– CU
– Memory Address register
– Memory Data register
– RAM
– PC
– IR
– Buses
 Machine instruction cycle
• Fetch operands (read memory data)
– MAR contains the address of the instruction to be fetched from RAM
– This address is placed in address bus.
– Activate the memory read control signal on the control bus
– The data at the specified RAM location is placed in data bus.
– Read the data from data bus into MDR
– Copy MDR contents to CIR
– If the instruction contains another address as operand, Fetch cycle is
repeated.
• Execute - Instruction is executed by the ALU, after decoding.
• Store result (write back memory data)
– Place the address of the location to be written in MAR
– Place the data to be written in MDR
– Activate the memory write control signal on the control bus
– Address bus carries the address from MAR, Data bus carries the data from
MDR - to RAM
 Need for persistent/secondary storage
• Persistent storage is needed to store data and
programs after the computer is turned off.
• Otherwise, all the programs and data would need to
be reinstalled every time the computer is restarted.
• Also, RAM is limited in a computer while large
amounts of secondary storage are relatively cheap,
so storing unused data and programs in secondary
storage is useful to make space for running ones.
• Persistent storage is necessary in order to be able to
keep all of our files and data for later use.
• Access to secondary storage is slower
 Need for persistent storage
• Examples of persistent storage:
– Magnetic Tapes , Hard Disk Drive (HDD), Solid State Drive (SSD), Flash
Memory
– CDs / DVDs / Blu ray disks / USB memory Sticks
• Comparison
– Primary storage is accessed by a computer's central processing unit (CPU)
and secondary storage is not accessed directly by the CPU;
– Primary storage has lower access time / has smaller capacity/ more
expensive type of memory than secondary storage (which is slower than
primary storage, with larger capacity but it is cheaper);
– Primary storage is volatile (uses random-access memory (RAM), cache
memory, or some other specialized hardware to store data while the
computer is powered on/ volatile devices), whilst secondary storage on a
computer is provided by non-volatile devices (such as SSD or HDD);
– Primary storage holds data temporarily whilst data is kept permanently/ for a
long time in secondary storage;
– Primary storage holds currently running programs/data/operating system,
secondary storage does not
 TOK Pointers
• If there are no consequences of data loss, why
is it stored.
• There is no such thing as persistent storage.
 If there are no consequences of data loss,
why is it stored.
• Unforeseen Utility: Data that seems irrelevant today might become valuable in the future due to new technological advancements or
shifts in research focus.
• Example: Early astronomical observations were stored even when their practical applications were not immediately apparent. Today,
such historical data can be crucial for understanding long-term celestial phenomena.
• Redundancy and Backup if a copy is lost
• to avoid potential disruptions caused by unexpected system failures.
• Laws and regulations may mandate the storage of certain types of data
• Example: Financial institutions are required to retain transaction records for a specified period to comply with regulations, even if
most transactions do not seem individually important.
• Cultural and Historical Preservation: Data might be stored for its historical significance or for future generations to study.
• Example: Archival institutions store documents, photographs, and records that document societal history, which may not have
immediate practical consequences but are invaluable for historical research.
• Building a Knowledge Base: Continuously storing data contributes to the accumulation of knowledge, which can be analyzed to
reveal trends, patterns, and insights over time.
• Example: Scientific data on climate patterns is stored over decades to study long-term climate changes, even if short-term data loss
might not seem impactful.
• Organizational Knowledge: Within organizations, storing data helps maintain institutional memory, which is crucial for training,
decision-making, and strategic planning.
• Example: Companies store internal reports, meeting minutes, and project documentation to ensure continuity and knowledge
transfer among employees.
• Supporting Innovation: Storing a wide array of data can support innovation by providing a rich resource for researchers and
developers to draw upon.
• Example: Pharmaceutical companies store extensive research data, including failed experiments, as this data can provide valuable
insights for future drug development.
• Respect for Data Subjects: In cases involving personal data, ethical considerations might necessitate the storage of data to respect
the rights and contributions of individuals.
• Example: Oral histories and testimonies collected from individuals in marginalized communities are stored to honor their experiences
and ensure their stories are preserved.
There is no such thing as persistent storage.

• Knowledge - considered a dynamic and living