Control Systems

Special Topic. PID Controller

Aasar Ahmad
2 Design Specifications
• often use design specifications to describe what the
system should do and how it is done.
• These specifications are unique to each individual
application and often include specifications about relative
stability, steady-state accuracy (error), transient-
response characteristics
• In some applications there may be additional
specifications on sensitivity to parameter variations, that
is, robustness, or disturbance rejection.
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3 Design Specifications
• The design of linear control systems can be carried out in
either the time domain or the frequency domain.
• For instance, steady-state accuracy is often specified with
respect to a step input, a ramp input, or a parabolic input,
and the design to meet a certain requirement is more
conveniently carried out in the time domain.
• Other specifications such as maximum overshoot, rise time,
and settling time are all defined for a unit-step input and,
therefore, are used specifically for time-domain design

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4 Design Specifications
• Thus, the choice of whether the design should be
conducted in the time domain or the frequency domain
depends often on the preference of the designer.
• We should be quick to point out, however, that in most
cases, time-domain specifications such as maximum
overshoot, rise time, and settling time are usually used
as the final measure of system performance.

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5 Various Controller Configurations

Various controller configurations

in control-system compensation,
(a) Series or cascade
compensation,
(b) Feedback compensation,
(c) State-feedback control,
(d) Series-feedback
compensation,
(e) Forward compensation with
series compensation,
(f) Feedforward compensation.

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6 Fundamental Principles of Design
• After a controller configuration is chosen, the designer must
choose a controller type that, with proper selection of its element
values, will satisfy all the design specifications.
• Engineering practice usually dictates that one choose the simplest
controller that meets all the design specifications.
• In most cases, the more complex a controller is, the more it costs,
the less reliable it is, and the more difficult it is to design.
• Choosing a specific controller for a specific application is often
based on the designer's past experience and sometimes intuition,
and it entails as much art as it does science.

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7 PID

This chapter examines a particular control structure that has become almost universally
used in industrial control. It is based on a particular fixed structure controller family, the so-
called PID controller family. These controllers have proven to be robust and extremely
beneficial in the control of many important applications.
PID stands for: P (Proportional)
I (Integral)
D (Derivative)

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PID
8

• One of the commonly used controllers in the

compensation schemes is a PID controller
• PID applies a signal to the process that is proportional
to the actuating signal in addition to adding integral
and derivative of the actuating signal.
• These signal components are easily realized and
visualized in the time domain, PID controllers are
commonly designed using time-domain methods.

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9 Historical Note
• PID control is one of the earlier control strategies
• Early feedback control devices used the ideas of
proportional, integral and derivative action in their
structures.
• Its early implementation was in pneumatic devices,
followed by vacuum and solid state analog
electronics, before arriving at today’s digital
implementation of microprocessors..

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10 Historical Note
• It has a simple control structure which was
understood by plant operators and which they found
relatively easy to tune.
• According to a survey for process control systems
conducted in 1989, more than 95 of the control loops
were of the PID type

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Why PID Control
• Simple, easy to use
• Wide Application: Petrochemical, Pharmaceuticals, Food,
Chemical, Aerospace and Semiconductor, etc.
• Robust: Insensitive to changes to plant parameter and
disturbance.

Over 95% control loops are PID with two exceptions:

1. On/off control for those with low control requirement loops
2. Advanced control for those difficult systems and with high
control quality.
12 General Control System

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13 PID Block Diagram

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14 PID Mathematically
Consider the input error variable, e(t):
 Let p(t) = Kp*e(t) {p proportional to e }


Let i(t) = Ki* ∫e(t)dt {i integral of e }
 Let d(t) = Kd* de(t)/dt {d derivative of e}

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15 Four Modes of Controllers

Four modes of control commonly used for most applications are:

 Proportional (P)
 Proportional plus Reset (PI)
 Proportional plus Rate (PD)
 Proportional plus Reset plus Rate (PID)

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16 Four Modes of Controllers

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Tips for Designing a PID Controller
When you are designing a PID controller for a given system, follow the steps shown
below to obtain a desired response.
1. Obtain an open-loop response and determine what needs to be improved

2. Add a proportional control to improve the rise time

3. Add a derivative control to improve the overshoot
4. Add an integral control to eliminate the steady-state error
5. Adjust each of Kp, Ki, and Kd until you obtain a desired overall response.
Lastly, please keep in mind that you do not need to implement all three controllers (proportional,
derivative, and integral) into a single system, if not necessary. For example, if a PI controller gives
a good enough response, then you don't need to implement derivative controller to the system.
Keep the controller as simple as possible.
The Characteristics of P, I, and D
controllers
• A proportional controller (Kp) will have the effect of
reducing the rise time and will reduce, but never
eliminate, the steady-state error.
• An integral control (Ki) will have the effect of eliminating
the steady-state error, but it may make the transient
response worse.
• A derivative control (Kd) will have the effect of increasing
the stability of the system, reducing the overshoot, and
improving the transient response.
Proportional Control
By only employing proportional control, a steady state error occurs.

Proportional and Integral Control

The response becomes more oscillatory and needs longer to settle, the error disappears.

Proportional, Integral and Derivative Control

All design specifications can be reached.
20
The Characteristics of P, I, and D controllers

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21 PI Equations

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22 PI Characteristics

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23 PI Control

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24 PD Controller

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25 PD Controller

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26 PD Controller

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27 PID Controller

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28 PID Controller Characteristics

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29 Design of PID Controllers

• Based on the knowledge of P, I and D

– trial and error
– manual tuning
– simulation

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30 Example Problem

Suppose we have a simple mass, spring, and damper

problem.

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31 Example Problem
The modeling equation of this system is

Taking the Laplace transform of the modeling equation, we get

The transfer function between the displacement and the input

then becomes
Let
M = 1 kg b = 10 N s/m k = 20 N/m F=1N
Plug these values into the above transfer function

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32 Example Problem

The goal of this problem is to show you how each of kp, ki , and kd
contributes to obtain
• Fast rise time
• Minimum overshoot
• No steady-state error

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 Open-Loop Control - Example

num=1; 1
den=[1 10 20];
G( s )
2
step(num,den) s  10s  20

The DC gain of the plant transfer function is

1/20, so 0.05 is the final value of the output
to an unit step input. This corresponds to
the steady-state error of 0.95, quite large
indeed. Furthermore, the rise time is about
one second, and the settling time is about
1.5 seconds. Let's design a controller that
will reduce the rise time, reduce the settling
time, and eliminate the steady-state error
Proportional Control - Example
The proportional controller (Kp) reduces the rise time, increases the overshoot,
and reduces the steady-state error. Kp
T( s )
MATLAB Example 2
Kp=300; s  10s  ( 20  Kp )
Step Response
From: U(1)
1.4

num=[Kp];
Step Response
1.2 From: U(1)
1

den=[1 10 20+Kp]; 1 0.9

0.8
Amplitude

0.8

t=0:0.01:2;
To: Y(1)

0.7

0.6
K=300 0.6

Amplitude
step(num,den,t)

To: Y(1)
K=100
0.5
0.4

0.4

0.2
0.3

0 0.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Time (sec.) 0.1

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Time (sec.)
Proportional - Derivative - Example
Now, let's take a look at a PD control. From the table shown above, we see that the
derivative controller (Kd) reduces both the overshoot and the settling time. The
Kd s  Kp
closed-loop transfer function of the given system with a PD controller is:
T( s )
Kp=300; 2
s  ( 10  Kd ) s  ( 20  Kp )
Step Response
From: U(1)
1.4

Kd=10; 1
Step Response
From: U(1)
1.2

num=[Kd Kp]; 1
0.9

0.8

den=[1 10+Kd 20+Kp];

Amplitude

0.8 0.7
To: Y(1)

Kd=10 0.6 Kd=20

Amplitude
0.6

t=0:0.01:2;

To: Y(1)
0.5

0.4 0.4

step(num,den,t) 0.2
0.3

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 0.1

Time (sec.) 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

This plot shows that the derivative controller reduced both the overshoot and
Time (sec.)

the settling time, and had a small effect on the rise time and the steady-state
error
Proportional - Integral - Example
The integral controller (Ki) decreases the rise time, increases both the overshoot
and the settling time, and eliminates the steady-state error
Kp s  Ki
T( s )
MATLAB Example 3 2
s  10s  ( 20  Kp ) s  Ki
Kp=30; Step Response
From: U(1)
1.4

Ki=70; 1.2
1.4
Step Response
From: U(1)

num=[Kp Ki]; 1
1.2

Ki=70
Amplitude

den=[1 10 20+Kp Ki]; To: Y(1) 0.8

Ki=100

Amplitude
0.8

To: Y(1)
0.6

t=0:0.01:2; 0.4
0.6

0.4

step(num,den,t) 0.2

0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
0
Time (sec.) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Time (sec.)

We have reduced the proportional gain (Kp) because the integral controller also
reduces the rise time and increases the overshoot as the proportional controller
does (double effect). The above response shows that the integral controller
eliminated the steady-state error
 37
Proportional-Integral-Derivative Example
Now, let's take a look at a PID controller. The closed-loop transfer function of the
given system with a PID controller is:

After several trial and error runs, the gains Kp = 350, ki = 300, and kd = 50 provided the
desired response

Now, we have obtained a closed-

loop system with no overshoot, fast
rise time, and no steady-state error

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Proportional-Integral-Derivative(PID) Control
38

• For control over steady-state and transient

errors we can combine all three control
strategies we have discussed is PID control.
• PID combination is sometimes able to provide
an acceptable degree of error reduction
simultaneously with stability and damping.

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39 PID by MATLAB Implement Example
• Consider a system with transfer function
T=10K/[(1*2)s^2+ (1+2)s+1+AK]

Step Response
Change it manually 1.5

Amplitude
0.5

0
0 0.003 0.006 0.009 0.012 0.015 0.018
Time (sec.)
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40 PID by MATLAB Implement Example 2
• Consider a system with transfer function
T=(K*S+Ki)/[S^3+ 3*S^2+(2+K)*S+Ki]

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41
step response
1.4

1.2

y(t) 0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
t

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42 Tuning a PID

There is a fairly standard procedure for tuning PID

controllers:
• Trial and Error Tuning
• Automatic PID Tuning
• Ziegler and Nichols Tuning
• Cohen-Coon Tuning

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43
Trial and Error Tuning

The trial and error tuning method is based on

guess-and-check. In this method, the
proportional action is the main control, while the
integral and derivative actions refine it. The
controller gain, Kp, is adjusted with the integral
and derivative actions held at a minimum, until
a desired output is obtained.

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44
Automatic PID Tuning

MATLAB provides tools for automatically choosing optimal

PID gains which makes the trial and error process
described above unnecessary. You can access the tuning
algorithm directly using pidtune or through a nice
graphical user interface (GUI) using pidtool.

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45 Ziegler-Nichols Tuning of PID
Regulators
• J. G. Ziegler and N. B. Nichols recognized that the step
responses of a large number of processes control
systems exhibits a process reaction curve
• Ziegler & Nichols gave two methods for tuning the
controller
• Open-Loop Tuning Method or Process Reaction Method
• Based on a stability boundary

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 Ziegler-Nichols Open-Loop Tuning Method or
46
Process Reaction Method
This method remains a popular technique for tuning controllers that
use proportional, integral, and derivative actions. The Ziegler-Nichols
open-loop method is also referred to as a process reaction method,
because it tests the open-loop reaction of the process to a change in
the control variable output. This basic test requires that the response
of the system be recorded, preferably by a plotter or computer. Once
certain process response values are found, they can be plugged into
the Ziegler-Nichols equation with specific multiplier constants for the
gains of a controller with either P, PI, or PID actions.

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Ziegler-Nichols Open-Loop Tuning Method or Process
47
Reaction Method

To use the Ziegler-Nichols open-loop tuning method, you must

perform the following steps:
1. Make an open loop step test
2. From the process reaction curve determine the transportation lag
=L or dead time= td, the time constant or time for the response to
change =

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Ziegler-Nichols Open-Loop Tuning Method or Process
48 Reaction Method

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Ziegler-Nichols Open-Loop Tuning Method or Process
49
Reaction Method

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50 Sample of MATLAB Implement
 Consider a system with transfer function
T=2/[(S+2)*(0.18*S^2+0.6*S+1)]

With L=0.38;R=1;

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 4
51
2

3 5

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52

Step Response
1.5

y(t)
0.5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
t

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Ziegler-Nichols
53
closed-loop tuning method

• The Ziegler-Nichols closed-loop tuning method allows you to use the

ultimate gain value, Ku, and the ultimate period of oscillation, Pu, to
calculate K . It is a simple method of tuning PID controllers and can be
refined to give better approximations of the controller. You can obtain
the controller constants K , Ti , and Td in a system with feedback. The
Ziegler-Nichols closed-loop tuning method is limited to tuning
processes that cannot run in an open-loop environment

• Determining the ultimate gain value, Ku, is accomplished by finding the

value of the proportional-only gain that causes the control loop to
oscillate indefinitely at steady state

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Ziegler-Nichols
54
closed-loop tuning method

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55 Z.-N. Tuning of PID Regulators
Method Two
Based on a
stability
boundary

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56 Worked out Example
Problem
You're a controls engineer working for Flawless Design company when
your optimal controller breaks down. As a backup, you figure that by
using coarse knowledge of a classical method, you may be able to
sustain development of the product. After adjusting the gain to one set
of data taken from a controller, you find that your ultimate gain is
4.3289.

From the adjusted plot below, determine the type of loop this graph
represents; then, please calculate K, Ti, and Td for all three types of
controllers.

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57 Worked out Example

Solution
From the fact that this graph oscillates
and is not a step function, we see that
this is a closed loop. Thus, the values
will be calculated accordingly.
We're given the Ultimate gain, Ku =
4.3289. From the graph below, we see
that the ultimate period at this gain is
Pu = 6.28

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58 Worked out Example

From this, we can calculate the Kc, Ti, and

Td for all three types of controllers. The
results are tabulated below. (Results were
calculated from the Ziegler-Nichols
closed-loop equations.)

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 Numerical Example
Consider a plant with a model given by

Find the parameters of a PID controller using the Z-N oscillation method. Obtain a graph of
the response to a unit step input reference and to a unit step.
60 Example

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 61 Example

Hence, from Table , we have

K= 0.6 ku=4.8, Ti=1/2 Pu=1.81, Td=1/8 Pu=0.45

Ku = 8 and Pu =3.62
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62 Example

Kp = 4.8, Ki = 2.64, Kd = 2.16

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63 General comments about
The differentcontroller
methodologies oftuning
controller tuning, known as Ziegler-Nichols
method have been illustrated. It is to be remembered that the
recommended settings are obtained from extensive experimentation with
number of different processes; there is no theoretical basis behind these
selections. As a result, a better combination of the P, I, D values may always
be found, that will give less oscillation and better settling time. But with no
a-priori knowledge of the system, it is always advisable to perform the
experimentation and select the controller settings, obtained from Ziegler-
Nichols method. But there is always scope for improving the performance of
the controller by fine-tuning. So, Ziegler-Nichols method provides initial
settings that will give satisfactory, result, but it is always advisable to fine-
tune the controller further for the particular process and better performance
is expected to be achieved
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64 General Comments about
Controller Tuning
Nowadays digital computers are replacing the
conventional analog controllers. P-I-D control actions are
generated through digital computations. Digital outputs
of the controllers are converted to analog signals before
they are fed to the actuators. In many cases,
commercial software are available for Auto tuning the
process.

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65 General Comments about Controller
Tuning
a) Why is the proportional gain Kp for PI control is less than the
value for P-only control?
b) Why Kp for PID control is more than that PI?
Solution
c) Addition of integral control action to P-only control tends to
make the closed loop system more oscillatory; in order to
overcome this problem, the suggested value of Kp with ZN
tuning is reduced.
d) Addition of derivative action again damps down the oscillation;
as a result larger value of Kp in a PID controller is permissible.

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