Fundamentals of

Network
Booting Process
 Power On

 BIOS ( Basic Input Output System) – POST ( Power On

Self-Test)
 MBR ( Master Boot Record) – Sector 0 of Hard Disk
Drive – 512 bytes
Introduction to OSI Model
• Open System Interconnection (OSI) is a reference model that defines the communication of data, and it helps
to visualize and communicate how networks operate, and helps isolate and troubleshoot networking
problems.
• It classifies the communication between two endpoints into seven layers.
• It was the first standard model for network communications, adopted by all major computer and
telecommunication companies in the early 1980s.
OSI(Open Systems Interconnection) Model
Protocols in every layer of OSI Model
HTTP, FTP, DNS, SNMP, Telnet, NFS, SMTP,TFTP
Application layer

Presentation layer SSL, TLS

Session layer NetBIOS, PPTP

Transport layer TCP, UDP

Network layer IP, ARP, ICMP, IPSec

Data Link layer PPP, ATM, Ethernet

Physical layer Ethernet, USB, Bluetooth, Ieee802.11

How TCP/IP works?
• TCP/IP works by breaking data down into packets, which are small chunks of data that can be transmitted
over the network.
• Each packet in TCP/IP contains a header, which includes information about the source and destination IP
addresses, the sequence number, and the data being transmitted.
• When a computer wants to send data to another computer over the internet, it first breaks down the data
into packets and then sends them over the network. The packets are then routed from one device to another
until they reach their destination.
• At the destination, the packets are reassembled into the original data. This is done by using the sequence
numbers in the packet headers to put the packets back in the correct order.
TCP/IP Model
Comparing OSI and TCP/IP
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a widely used transport layer protocol in computer networks.
• TCP provides reliable, connection-oriented communication between devices over IP networks.
TCP Features
• Reliable Delivery: TCP ensures the reliable delivery of data by using acknowledgment, retransmission, and
sequencing mechanisms.
• Connection-Oriented: TCP establishes a connection between the sender and receiver before data
transmission.
• Flow Control: TCP employs flow control mechanisms to regulate the flow of data and prevent overwhelming
the receiver.
• Congestion Control: TCP manages network congestion by dynamically adjusting the sending rate based on
network conditions.
• Error Checking: TCP uses checksums to detect and recover from errors in data transmission.
• Full-Duplex Communication: TCP supports simultaneous bidirectional communication between the sender
and receiver.
Three-way handshake
• SYN (Synchronize): The client sends a SYN packet to
the server, indicating its intention to establish a
connection.
• SYN-ACK (Synchronize-Acknowledge): The server
responds with a SYN-ACK packet, acknowledging the
client's request and indicating its readiness to establish
the connection.
• ACK (Acknowledgment): The client sends an ACK
packet to confirm the establishment of the connection.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a connectionless transport layer protocol in the TCP/IP protocol suite.
• UDP provides a lightweight and low-latency communication mechanism for transmitting data over IP
networks.
Internet Protocol (IP)
• IP is a network layer protocol present in the TCP/IP communications protocol suite.
• The data is always sent as packets or datagrams in networking.
• IP provides a unanimously defined address that eliminates the need to create a connection before sending
data.
• IP also provides a datagram service that carries information or data to the destination without much
guarantee regarding the confirmed arrival of these packets at the destination.
• There are two versions of IP available:
– Internet protocol version 4 (IPv4)
– Internet protocol version 6 (1Pv6).
IP Addressing
• IP (Internet Protocol) addressing is a fundamental concept in computer networking.
• It provides a unique identifier to devices connected to a network, enabling communication between them.
• An IP address consists of two main components: the network address and the host address.
• The network address identifies the network to which the device belongs.
• The host address identifies the specific device within the network.
Private IP Addresses
• Private IP addresses are reserved for use within private networks and are not routable on the public internet.
• They allow for local network communication and are commonly used in home and office networks.
• Examples of private IP address ranges are 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255 and 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255.
Public IP Addresses
• Public IP addresses are globally unique and routable on the internet.
• They are assigned to devices that require direct communication with other devices on the internet.
• Internet Service Providers (ISPs) allocate public IP addresses to their customers.
Dynamic and Static IP Addresses
• Dynamic IP addresses are assigned to devices temporarily by the network's DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol) server.
• Static IP addresses are manually configured and remain fixed for a device.
• Static IP addresses are typically used for servers, routers, or devices that require consistent network access.
Classful IP Addressing
• Classful IP addressing is an addressing scheme used in the early days of the Internet.
• It divides IP addresses into different classes based on the range of network and host addresses.
IP Address Classes
• Class A: The first octet is reserved for the network address, and the remaining three octets are used for host
addresses. Supports a large number of networks with a small number of hosts.
• Class B: The first two octets are reserved for the network address, and the remaining two octets are used for
host addresses. Supports a moderate number of networks and hosts.
• Class C: The first three octets are reserved for the network address, and the last octet is used for host
addresses. Supports a large number of networks with a small number of hosts.
• Class D: Reserved for multicast addresses.
• Class E: Reserved for experimental purposes.
IP Addressing
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
Domain Name System
1. DHCP Discover Message: This is the first message generated in the communication process between the
server and the client. This message is generated by the Client host in order to discover if there is any DHCP
server/servers are present in a network or not. This message is broadcasted to all devices present in a
network to find the DHCP server. This message is 342 or 576 bytes long.

DHCP Offers A Message: The server will respond to the host in this message specifying the unleased IP
address and other TCP configuration information.
If there is more than one DHCP server present in the network then the client host will accept the first DHCP
OFFER message it receives. Also, a server ID is specified in the packet in order to identify the server.

3. DHCP Request Message: When a client receives an offer message, it responds by broadcasting a DHCP
request message. The client will produce a gratuitous ARP in order to find if there is any other host present in
the network with the same IP address. If there is no reply from another host, then there is no host with the
same TCP configuration in the network and the message is broadcasted to the server showing the acceptance
of the IP address. A Client ID is also added to this message.

Note – This message is broadcast after the ARP request broadcast by the PC to find out whether any other
host is not using that offered IP. If there is no reply, then the client host broadcast the DHCP request message
for the server showing the acceptance of the IP address and Other TCP/IP Configuration.
4. DHCP Acknowledgment Message: In response to the request message received, the server
will make an entry with a specified client ID and bind the IP address offered with lease time.
Now, the client will have the IP address provided by the server.

5. DHCP Negative Acknowledgment Message: Whenever a DHCP server receives a request for
an IP address that is invalid according to the scopes that are configured, it sends a DHCP Nak
message to the client. Eg-when the server has no IP address unused or the pool is empty, then
this message is sent by the server to the client.
6. DHCP Decline: If the DHCP client determines the offered configuration parameters are
different or invalid, it sends a DHCP decline message to the server. When there is a reply to the
gratuitous ARP by any host to the client, the client sends a DHCP decline message to the
server showing the offered IP address is already in use.

7. DHCP Release: A DHCP client sends a DHCP release packet to the server to release the IP
address and cancel any remaining lease time.
8. DHCP Inform: If a client address has obtained an IP address manually then the client uses
DHCP information to obtain other local configuration parameters, such as domain name. In
reply to the DHCP inform message, the DHCP server generates a DHCP ack message with a
local configuration suitable for the client without allocating a new IP address. This DHCP ack
message is unicast to the client.
Switch
• A switch is a networking device that connects
devices on a network and enables them to
communicate with each other.
• It operates at the data link layer of the OSI model
and is commonly used in LANs.
• It forwards data packets to the appropriate
device on the network based on the destination
MAC address.
Switch Functions
• Packet Forwarding: Switches examine the destination MAC address of incoming data packets and forward
them only to the appropriate destination device, reducing unnecessary network traffic.
• MAC Address Learning: Switches learn and store the MAC addresses of devices connected to their ports,
creating a MAC address table to facilitate efficient data forwarding.
• Collision Domain Separation: Unlike hubs, switches create individual collision domains for each of their ports,
enabling simultaneous data transmission between devices without collisions.
Types of Switches

• Unmanaged Switch: An unmanaged switch is a basic plug-and-play device with no configuration options. It
automatically forwards data packets based on MAC addresses and requires no user intervention.
• Managed Switch: A managed switch offers advanced configuration options and features, allowing
administrators to control network settings, monitor traffic, and implement security measures. Managed
switches are commonly used in larger networks.
Switching Techniques
• Store-and-Forward Switching: In this technique, switches receive complete data packets, verify their integrity,
and then forward them to the destination device. It ensures error-free transmission but introduces some latency.
• Cut-Through Switching: Cut-through switching forwards data packets as soon as the destination MAC address is
determined, without waiting for the complete packet. It minimizes latency but may transmit corrupted or
incomplete packets.
Router

• Router is a device used for connecting two different networks.

• Routers transmit packets among several interconnected networks.
• They send packets from a network to the other important destinations
in a network.
Router Functions
• Packet Forwarding: Routers examine the destination IP address of incoming data packets and determine the
optimal path for forwarding them to their destination across different networks.
• Routing Table: Routers maintain a routing table that contains information about network addresses and the
best paths to reach them. This table is used to make routing decisions.
• Network Address Translation (NAT): Routers can perform NAT, allowing multiple devices on a local network to
share a single public IP address for internet connectivity.
• Firewall and Security: Many routers incorporate firewall capabilities to protect the network from
unauthorized access and malicious threats.
Types of Routers
• Wired Router
• Wireless Router
• Core Router
• Edge Router