ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY

LECTURE NOTES
CHAPTER ONE
1 METEOROLOGICAL AND HYDROLOGICAL DATA
ANALYSIS

1
To represent the actual processes taking place on the
environment and better estimation of quantities out of it
hydrological studies require extensive analysis of
 meteorological

 hydrological

 and spatial data

Hydrologists need to understand how the Amount, rate,

duration, and quality of precipitation distributed in space and
time to asses predict and forecast hydrologic responses of a
2
catchment.
Estimates of regional precipitation are critical inputs to water-balance
and other types of models used in water-resource management.
 The uncertainties associated with a value of regional precipitation
consist of:
1. Errors due to point measurement.
2. Errors due to uncertainty in converting point measurement data into
estimates of regional precipitation.
1.2 Meteorological data
1.2.1 Principles of Data Analysis
a) Corrections to Point Measurements
The most common causes of point precipitation-measurement are Rain
gages that project above the ground surface causes wind eddies
affecting the catch of the smaller raindrops and snowflakes.
3
The daily measured values need to be updated by applying a
correction factor K after corrections for evaporation, wetting loses
etc

Correction factor for unshielded rain gauges:

Kru = 100 exp (-4.605 + 0.062 Va0.58)

Correction factor for Alter wind shielded rain gauges:

Kru = 100 exp (-4.605 + 0.041 Va0.69)

Va = Wind speed at the gage orifice in m/s (Yang et al. 1998)

Errors due to splashing and evaporation usually are small and can
be neglected.
4
Systematic errors due to the mechanics of operation of the
instrument can be minimized by installing a non recording
type gauge adjacent to each recording gauge to assure that at
least the total precipitation is measured.

Instrument errors are typically estimated as

1 – 5% of the total catch (Winter (1981)).

5
 b) Estimation of Missing Data
Several approaches are used to estimate the missing values.
where annual precipitation value b/n neighboring gauges differs
by less than 10% use
Station Average method,
Px=1/m(P1+P2+…Pm)
Px = The missing precipitation record
P1, P2 , …, Pm = Precipitation records at the neighboring stations
M = Number of neighboring stations

6
where annual precipitation value b/n neighboring gauges
differs by greater than 10% the ff methods will use.
Normal Ratio method
Px=Nx/M(P1/N1+P2/N2+…+Pm/Nm)
Nx = Annual-average precipitation at the gage with missing
values
N1 , N2 , …, Nm = Annual average precipitation at
neighboring gauges
Inverse Distance method weights the annual
average values only by their distances, dm, (no
need of information about average annual
precipitation at the gauges)
7
 D=∑dm^-b

Px=1/D(∑dm^-b Nx)

The value of b can be 1 if the weights are inversely

proportional to distance or 2, if the weights are
proportional to distance squared
 Regression methods

If relatively few values are missing at the gauge of interest,

it is possible to estimate the missing value by regression
8
method.
c) Checking the Consistency of Point Measurements

of the common causes for inconsistency of record are:

1. Shifting of a rain gauge station to a new location
2. The neighbor hood of the station may have undergoing
a marked change
3. Change in the immediate environment due to damages
due to deforestation, obstruction, etc.
4. Occurrence of observational error from a certain date
9 both personal and instrumental
The most common method of checking for inconsistency of a
record is the Double-Mass Curve analysis (DMC).

The adjustment is done by applying a correction factor K,

10
 1.3 Areal Estimation
Several approaches have been devised for
estimating areal precipitation from point
measurements.
1. The Arithmetic mean:- uses the mean of
precipitation record from all gauges in a
catchment.
2. Thiessen polygon(introduces a weighting factor
on rational basis).
3.Isohyetal method(The method requires the
preparation of the isohytal map of the catchment
11
from a network of gauging stations).
 1.4 Hydrological Data

The availability of stream flow data is important for the

model calibration process in catchment modeling.

Hydrological data is the base (priority feed back) for

any water related designs and construction purposes.

12
 Chapter Two
Rainfall-Runoff Relationships
2.1 Hydrological Models
 The two classical types of hydrological models are
1. The deterministic
2. And stochastic model

13
14
 2.2 Deterministic Hydrological Models
Deterministic models permit only one outcome from a
simulation with one set of inputs and parameter values.

In the deterministic models, the chance of occurrence of the

variables involved is ignored and the model is considered to
follow definite low of certainty but not any low of probability .

Deterministic models can be classified to whether the model

gives a lumped or distributed description of the considered area,
and whether the description of the hydrological processes is
empirical, conceptual, or more physically-based.
15
 The three main groups of deterministic models:
 Empirical Models (black box)
 Lumped Conceptual Models (grey box)
 Distributed Process (Physically) Description
Based Models (white box)
2.2.1 Empirical (Black Box) Models Black box models are
empirical, involving mathematical equations that have been
assessed, not from the physical processes in the catchment, but
from analysis of concurrent input and output time series.

The first of this kind of model was the Rational Method published
by16 the Irish engineer Thomas James
The model was a single simple equation often used for drainage
design for small suburban and urban watersheds.

The equation assumes the proportionality between peak

discharge, qpk, and the maximum average rainfall intensity, ieff:

qpk = CR* ieff*AD

Where AD is drainage area and CR is the runoff coefficient,

which depends on watershed land use.

The duration of the rainfall to be used in the equation is the

mean intensity of precipitation for duration equal to the time of
concentration and an exceedence probability of P.
17
2.2.2 Lumped Conceptual Models
Lumped models treat the catchment as a single unit, with state
variables that represent average values over the catchment area,
such as storage in the saturated zone.

Due to the lumped description, the description of the

hydrological processes cannot be based directly on the
equations that are supposed to be valid for the individual soil
columns. Hence, the equations are semi-empirical, but still with
a physical basis.

18
2.2.3 Distributed Process Description Based Models

Another approach to hydrological processes modeling was

the attempt to produce models based on the governing
equations describing all the surface and subsurface flow
processes in the catchment.

Distributed models of this type have the possibility of

defining parameter values for every element in the solution
mesh. They give a detailed and potentially more correct
description of the hydrological processes in the catchment
than do the other model types.
19
2.3 Stochastic Time Series Models

In the stochastic model the chance of occurrence of the

variable is considered thus introducing the concept of
probability.

Stochastic models allow for some andomness or uncertainty

in the possible outcomes due to uncertainty in input
variables, boundary conditions or model parameters.

20
2.4 Rational Method
One of the most commonly used for the calculation of peak
flow from small areas is the rational formula given as:

21
Assumptions inherent in the Rational Formula are as
follows:
The peak flow occurs when the entire watershed is
contributing to the flow
The rainfall intensity is the same over the entire drainage
area
The rainfall intensity is uniform over a time duration
equal to the time of concentration, tc . the time of
concentration is the time required for water to travel from
the hydraulically most remote point of the basin to the point
of interest
The frequency of the computed peak flow is the same as
that of the rainfall intensity, i.e., the 10-yr rainfall intensity
is assumed to produce the 10-yr peak flow
The coefficient of runoff is the same for all storms of all
recurrence probabilities
22
 2.4.1 Runoff Coefficient
The ground cover and a host of other hydrologic abstractions
considerably affect the coefficient.
The Values of C vary from 0.05 for flat sandy areas to 0.95 for
impervious urban surfaces,
If the basin contains varying amount of different land cover or
other abstractions, a coefficient can be calculated through areal
weighing as shown in following equation

23
24
2.4.2 Rainfall intensity
Rainfall intensity,
duration and frequency
curves are necessary to
use the Rational method.

25
2.4.3 Time of Concentration
There are a number of methods that can be used to estimate
time of concentration (tc), some of which are intended to
calculate the flow velocity within individual segments of
the flow path (e.g. shallow concentrated flow, open channel
flow, etc.)
Sheet flow travel time

26
 Shallow concentrated flow velocity

Open Channel and pipe flow velocity

27
For a circular pipe flowing full, the hydraulic radius is one-

fourth of the diameter. For wide rectangular channel (W>10d),

the hydraulic radius is approximately equal to the depth. The
travel time then calculated as follows.

28
 For small natural catchments,

29
2.5. SCS Curve Number Method

30
31
32
2.6. Time-Area Method
The time – area method of obtaining runoff or discharge from rainfall can
be considered as an extension and improvement of the rational method. The
peak discharge Qp is the sum of flow – contributions from subdivisions of
the catchment defined by time contours (called isochrones), which are lines
of equal flow – time to the river section where Q p is required.
As the assumption for the rational method, the whole
catchment is taken to be contributing to the flow after T
equals to Tc.
Hence the peak flow contributed from the whole catchment
after Tc of the commencement of rain is:
Q
p =
∑ i(n−k ) ∆A(k )
k -1
Where n, the number of incremental areas between
successive isochrones, is given by Tc/∆T, and k is a counter.
33
The unrealistic assumption made in the rational method of uniform
rainfall intensity over the whole catchment and during the whole of T c
is avoided in the time – area method, where the catchment
contributions are subdivided in time. The varying intensities within a
storm are averaged over discrete periods according to the isochrones
time interval selected. Hence, in deriving a flood peak for design
purposes, a design storm with a critical sequence of intensities can be
used for the maximum intensities applied to the contributing areas of
the catchment that have most rapid runoff. However, when such
differences within a catchment are considered, there arises difficulty
in determining Tc, the time after the commencement of the storm
34
when, by definition, Qp occurs.
2.7 STREAM FLOW HYDROGRAPH
A hydrograph is a graphical plot of discharge of a natural stream
or river versus time.
The hydrograph is a result of…….
By definition, the volume of water under an effective rainfall
hyetograph is equal to the volume of surface runoff.
Characteristic parts of hydrograph
 the rising limb,
 the crest segment
 and the falling limb or depletion curve.

35
With reference to the following figure the effective rainfall
hyetograph consisting of a single block of rainfall with duration
D (T is also used in the lecture note alternatively)

36
2.7.1 Hydrograph Analysis
One of the major tasks of the hydrograph analysis is to produce
rainfall-runoff relationships for a catchment area,

for predicting runoffs as a result of certain rains which does not

involve the direct measurement of runoff.

Hydrograph describes the whole time history of the changing

rate of flow from a catchment due to rainfall event rather than
predicting only the peak flow

37
Depending upon the unit of time involved, we
have:
 Annual hydrographs showing the variation of daily or
weekly or 10 days daily mean flows over a year.
 Monthly hydrograph
 Seasonal hydrographs representing the variation of the
discharge in a particular season such as the monsoon
season or dry season
 Flood hydrographs or hydrographs due to storm
representing stream flow due to a storm over a catchment
38
 Two Basic component of hydrograph
 Surface flow
 Bas flow

39
The length of the delay before the river rises depends on the
wetness of the catchment before the storm and on the intensity of
the rainfall itself.
The volume of surface runoff, represented by the area under the
hydrograph minus the base flow,
The boundary between surface runoff and base flow is difficult
to define and depends very much on the
 geological structure
 and composition of the catchment.
Permeable aquifers, such as limestone and
sandstone strata,
but impervious clays and built-up areas
The base flow levels are also affected by the general climatic
state
40 of the area:
The main aims of the engineering hydrologist
are to quantify the various components of the
hydrograph, by analyzing past events, in order
to relate effective rainfall to surface runoff,
and thereby to be able to estimate and design
for future events.

41
 2.7.2 Factors affecting flood hydrograph

42
2.7.3 Effective Rainfall
The portion of rainfall that finds its way into a river is
known as the effective rainfall, the rest being lost in
evaporation, detention on the vegetation and ground
surface or retention in the soil.

As the storm proceeds, the portion of effective rainfall

increases and that of lost rainfall decreases.

43
For the purposes of correlating direct runoff hydrograph
(DRH) with the rainfall, which produces the flow, it is
necessary to obtain the effective rainfall hydrograph
(hyetograph) (ERH) which can be obtained by deducting
the losses from the total rain.
At the beginning of a storm there could be considerable
interception of the rainfall and initial wetting of surfaces
before the rainfall become ‘effective’ to form surface
runoff.
The loss-rate is dependent on the state of the catchment
before the storm. But it is difficult to assess
44
quantitatively.
The two simplified methods of determining the effective
rainfall are:
I. The φ-index method
II. The initial and continuing loss method.
I. The φ-index method: this method assumes a constant
loss rate of φ-mm from the beginning of the rainfall
event. This amount accounts for interception,
evaporation loss and surface detention in pools and
hollows.
II. Initial and continuing loss rate method: In this method
all the rainfall up to the time of rise of the hydrograph
is considered lost, and there is a continuing loss-rate at
45
same level after words.
The total runoff consists of direct runoff and the base
flow. For hydrograph analysis the base flow has to be
separated from the total runoff.
There are several methods of base flow separation. Some
of them that are in common use are:
Straight-line method
 Method-I, Method-II, Method-III

Straight-line method (Method-I):-The separation of

the base flow is achieved by joining with a straight-line
beginning of the direct runoff to a point on the
recession limb representing the end of the direct runoff.
46
Point B the end of the recession limb may be located by an
empirical equation for the time interval N (days) from the peak
to the point B is N = 0.83A0.2
Where A = drainage in km2 and N in days
Method-II
In this method the base
flow curve existing prior to
the commencement of the
surface runoff is extended
till it intersects the ordinate
drawn at the peak Point C.
This point is joined to point
B by a straight line.
Segment AC and CB
47
separate the base flow and surface runoff.
 Method-III

In this method the base flow

recession curve after the
depletion of the floodwater is
extended backwards till it
intersects the ordinate at the
point of inflection (line EF).
Points A and F are joined by an
arbitrary smooth curve. This
method of base-flow is realistic
in situations where the
groundwater
48
2.8 The Unit Hydrograph (UH)
The unit hydrograph (UH) of duration T is defined as the
storm runoff due to unit depth (e.g. 1 mm rain depth) of
effective rainfall, generated uniformly in space and time on
the catchment in time T.

The duration can be chosen arbitrarily so that we can have a

1h UH, a 6h UH, etc.

49
The definition of unit hydrograph implies the following.

1.The unit hydrograph represents the lumped response of the catchment

to a unit rainfall excess of T-h duration to produce a direct-runoff

hydrograph. It relates only the direct runoff to the rainfall excess.
Hence the volume of water contained in the unit hydrograph must be
equal to the rainfall excess. As 1 mm depth of rainfall excess is
considered the area of the unit hydrograph is equal to a volume given
by 1 mm over the catchment.

2.The rainfall is considered to have an verage intensity of excess

rainfall (ER) of 1/T mm/h for the durationT-h of the storm.

3.The distribution of the storm is considered to be all over the

50
catchment.
 The unit hydrograph method makes several assumptions that
give it simple properties assisting in its application.
There is a direct proportional relationship between the effective
rainfall and the storm runoff. This is known as Law of
proportionality.
however, there will be only one unit hydrograph for the same
duration.
If the UH for a certain duration T is known then the runoff of any
other rain of the duration T may be computed by multiplying the
UH ordinates with the ratio of the given rain intensity with unit
rain. i.e.:

51
 The total hydrograph of direct runoff due to n successive amounts of

effective rainfall (for instance R1 and R2) is equal to the sum of the
n successive hydrographs produced by the effective rainfall (the
latter lagged by T h on the former). This is known as Law of
Superposition.
 The third property of TUH assumes that the effective rainfall-

surface runoff relationship does not change with time, i.e., the same
TUH always occurs whenever the unit of effective rainfall in T h is
applied on the catchment. Using this time invariance assumption,
once a TUH has been derived for a catchment area, it could be used
to represent the response of the catchment whenever required.
52
The derivation of the unit hydrograph of a catchment from
single storms proceeds in the following stages:

1. The rainfall records are scanned to find a storm of desired

duration that gives a fairly uniform distribution in time and
space. The hyetograph of this storm is constructed using a
convenient uniform interval of time.

2. The base flow is separated from the hydrograph using one of

the methods presented previously.

3. The surface runoff volume is determined as a depth of flow

53 by numerical integration:
 Where,

 d = depth of surface runoff in mm

 Δt = uniform time interval in hours at which the ordinates of

the surface runoff are measured

 ΣQ = sum of all ordinates of surface runoff hydrograph in m3/s

 A = catchment area in Km2

54
4. The ordinates of the surface runoff ydrograph are divided by
the runoff depth d due to the ordinates of the unit hydrograph.

5. The unit hydrograph for effective rainfall of duration T, the

TUH, is plotted, and the area under the curve is checked to see
if the enclosed volume is equivalent to unit effective rainfall
over the area of catchment.

55
Changing of the Duration of the UH

There are two methods to change the duration of unit

hydrograph:

By superposition

If a D-h unit hydrograph is available, and it is desired to

develop a unit hydrograph of nD h, where n is an
integer, it is easily accomplished by superposing n units
hydrographs with each graph separated from the
previous on by Dh.
56
 by S-curve technique

If it is desired to develop a unit hydrograph of duration mD,

where m is a fraction, the method of superposition cannot be
used. A different techniques known as the S-curve method is
adopted in such case.

The S-curve, also known as S-hydrograph is a hydrograph

produced by a continues effective rainfall at a constant rate for
an infinite period. It is a curve obtained by summation of a
infinite series of D-h unit hydrograph spaced Dh apart.
57
 The S-curve is
computed using the
following scheme:
S1 = u1
S2 = u1+u2 = u2+S1
S3 = u1+u2+u3 = u3
+S2
.
.
.
Sn = u1+u2+u3+…+un
= un+Sn-1
So, generally;
Si = ui+Si-1 for i = 1,
…,n
Si = Si-1 for i >n

58
This S-Curve is due to a D-h unit hydrograph. It
has an initial steep portion and reaches a
maximum equilibrium discharge at a time equal to
the time base of the 1st unit hydrograph. This
magnitude can be calculated by

Where,
Qs = the maximum rate at which an ER
intensity of 1/T can drain out of the catchment
of area, A (km2)
T1 = unit storm in hours

59
Consider two D-h S-curves A and B displaced
by T-h if the ordinates of B are subtracted from
that of A, the resulting curve is a DRH
produced by a rainfall excess of duration T-h
and magnitude [1/D]*T cm , hence if the ordinate
difference of A and B ie, (SA-SB) are divide by T/D, the
resulting ordinates a hydrograph due to an ER of 1cm
and T-h ie, T-h unit hydrograph

60
2.9 Applications of Unit Hydrograph
As the UH establishes a relationship between the DRH and
ERH for a catchment, they are of immense value in the
study of the hydrology of a catchment.
They are of great use in:
The development of flood hydrograph for extreme rainfall
magnitudes for use in design of hydraulic structures
Extension of flood-flow records based on rainfall records
The development of flood forecasting and warning systems
61
 2.10 Synthetic Unit Hydrographs
To develop unit hydrographs to a catchment, detailed
information about the rainfall and the resulting flood
hydrograph are needed. However, such information might
be available only at a few locations and in a majority of
catchments, especially those, which are at remote
locations; the data could normally be scarce. In order to
construct UH for such areas, empirical equations of
regional validity, which relate the important hydrograph
characteristics to the basin characteristics are of most
important. Unit hydrographs derived from such
relationships are known as synthetic unit hydrographs.

62
 2.10.1 Snyder’s method
The most important characteristics of a basin affecting a
hydrograph due to a given storm is basin lag. Actually basin
lag (also known as lag time). Its value is determined essentially
on the physical features of the catchment, such as size, length,
stream density and vegetation.
For simplicity, Snyder has used a somewhat different definition
of basin lag (denoted by tp) in his methodology. This tp is
practically of the same order of magnitude as TL and in this
section the term basin lag is used to denote Snyder’s tp.
The first of the Snyder’s equation relates the basin lag tp.
Defined as the time interval from the mid point of the unit
rainfall excess to the peak of the unit hydrograph (Figure
below) to the basin characteristics as:
63 tp = Ct (LLc)0.3
 Where,
tp in hours
L = basin length measured along the watercourse from the basin divide to the
gauging station in km.
Lc = distance along the main watercourse from the gauging station to the point
opposite (or nearest) the watershed centroid in km
Ct = a regional constant representing watershed slope and storage
The value of Ct in Snyder’s study ranged from 1.35 to 1.65. However, studies by
many investigators have shown that Ct depends upon the region under study and
wide variations with the value of Ct ranging from 0.3 to 6.0 have been reported.

64
 Elements of synthetic unit hydrograph
65
CtL and n are basin constants. (n= 0.38 and CtL = 1.715, 1.03, 0.50
for mountainous, foot-hill and valley drainages of USA) Standard
duration of effective rainfall, tr (in hours)

Peak discharge Qp (m3/s) of unit hydrograph of standard duration tr

Where A = km2, Cp = regional constant If a non-standard rainfall duration tR h is

adopted, instead of the value tr to derive a unit hydrograph the value of the basin
lag is affected. The modified basin lag is given by:

66
 Where t’p = basin lag in hours for an effective duration of tR.
Therefore Qp,
Note that when tR = tr implies QP = Qps The time base of unit
hydrograph is given by Snyder as:

This equation gives reasonable estimates of time base for large

catchments; it may give excessively large values of time base for
small catchments.
Taylor and Schwartz recommend,
With tb taken as the next larger integer value divisible by tR i.e. tb is
about five times the time to peak.
To assist in the sketching of unit hydrographs,

67
Where W50 = width of unit hydrograph in hour at 50% peak
discharge W75 = width of unit hydrograph in hour at 75% peak
discharge q = Qp/A = peak discharge per unit catchment area in
m3/s/km2 Since the coefficients Ct and Cp vary from region to
region, in practical applications it is advisable that the value of these
coefficients are determined from known unit hydrographs of
meteorologically homogeneous catchments and then used in the basin
under study. This way Snyder’s equations are of use in scaling the
hydrograph information from one catchment to another similar
c
68
catchment.
 2.11 UH from a complex storm
In nature storms are most likely occurring with changing
intensities over their total duration.

The resulting storm from the complex storm is divided into

sub storms of equal duration and constant intensity. After
defining the effective rain from the individual storm and
computing the direct runoff hydrograph, the composite DRH
is obtained.

69
At various time intervals 1D, 2D, 3D, … from the start of the
ERH, let the ordinates of the unit hydrograph be u1, u2, u3, …
and the ordinates of the composite DRH be Q1, Q2, Q3,….
Then
Q1 = R1u1
Q2=R1u2 + R2u1
Q3= R1u3 +R2u2 + R3u1
Q4= R1u4 + R2u3 +R3u2
Q5= R1u5 + R2u4 +R3u3
From the above equation U1, U2, U3… can be determined

70
• The first of the Snyder’s equation relates the basin lag tp.
Defined as the time interval from the mid point of the unit
rainfall excess to the peak of the unit hydrograph
tp = Ct (LLc)0.3

• Where,
• tp in hours
• L = basin length measured along the
watercourse from the basin divide to the
gauging station in km.
• Lc = distance along the main watercourse
from the gauging station to the point opposite
(or nearest) the watershed centroid in km
• Ct = a regional constant representing watershed
slope and storage
71
72
→Important relationships:
 Basin lag tp

CtL and n are basin constants. (n= 0.38 and CtL = 1.715,
1.03, 0.50 for mountainous, foot-hill and valley
drainages respectively
Standard duration of effective rainfall, tr (in
hours)

Peak discharge Qp (m3/s) of unit

hydrograph of standard
duration tr

73 Where A = km2, Cp = regional constant

If a non-standard rainfall duration t R h is adopted,
instead of the value tr to derive a unit hydrograph
the value of the basin lag is affected. The modified
basin lag is given by:

Where t’p = basin lag in hours for an effective duration

of tR.

Note that when tR = tr implies QP = Qps

74
 The time base of unit hydrograph is given by
Snyder as:

To assist in the sketching of

unit hydrographs,

Where
W50 = width of unit hydrograph in hour at 50%
peak discharge
W75 = width of unit hydrograph in hour at
75% peak discharge
75
q = Qp/A = peak discharge per unit catchment
3 2
2.12 Instantaneous unit Hydrograph (IUH)

 For a given catchment a number of unit

hydrographs of different durations are possible.
 The shape of these different UHs depends upon
the value of D.
 As the value of D is reduced, the intensity of
rainfall excess being equal to 1/D increases and
the unit hydrograph becomes more skewed. A
finite UH is indicated as the duration D→o.

76
The limiting case of a unit hydrograph of zero
duration is known as instantaneous unit
hydrograph (IUH).

its important properties

being:
1. 0 ≤ u ≤ u(t) a positive
value, for t > o;

2. u(t) =0 for t ≤0;

3. u(t) → = 0 for t → ∞;

5. Time to peak = time to

the centroid of the curve.

77
2.13 Dimensionless Unit Hydrograph

Dimensionless unit hydrograph is used to develop a

synthetic Uh in place of Synder’s equations.
A typical UH developed by SCS has ordinates
expressed as a ratio to the peak discharge (Q/Q p)
and the abscissa as ratio of time to peak time (t/t pk).
→ Q/Qp = 1.0, when t/tpk = 1.0

78
2.14 Hydrology of Ungauged Catchments

Extrapolation of flow data to ungauged

sites:
 In regions where stream flow does not vary
with respect to the contributing drainage area
flow duration curves can be plotted for the
gauged sites. From these developed flow
duration curves, a family of parametric flow
duration curves can be developed,

 in which flow is plotted against the average

annual runoff ( R ) or annual discharge, Q at
79
the respective gages for several exceedence
80
 Determination of average annual discharge:

To use the parametric flow duration curves

effectively, it is necessary to determine the average
annual discharge,Q, at the point or location on the
stream for which a flow analysis is to be made. for
determining the annual discharge. The records of
precipitation and stream flow data should represent
the same period of record.

For this purpose Isohytal maps developed for

normal annual precipitation in a river basin are
helpful

81
Utilizing the records of average annual
precipitation input to the basins at measured
streams nearby or having similar hydrologic
characteristics, a runoff coefficient is estimated for
the drainage basin being studied.
The product of this coefficient and the computed
normal annual precipitation input to the basin and
the basin area can be used to calculate the average
annual discharge as:

82