CHAPTER FOUR

4.1.BASIC CONCEPTS OF CRITICAL THINKING

 4.1.1. Meaning of Critical Thinking
 Critical thinking can be defined as
A wide range of cognitive skills and intellectual
dispositions needed to effectively identify, analyze, and
evaluate arguments and truth claims.
Involving or exercising skilled judgment or observation
i.e. Thinking clearly and intelligently.
A wide range of cognitive skills and intellectual
dispositions needed to effectively identify, analyze, and
evaluate arguments and truth claims.
 Critical thinking is a process or journey that helps us
 To arrive at the most useful, helpful, and most
likely destinations when evaluating claims for
scientific truth
 To formulate and present convincing reasons in
support of conclusions; and
 To make reasonable, intelligent decisions about
what to believe and what to do.
 Critical thinking, thus, is thinking clearly, thinking
fairly, thinking rationally, thinking objectively,
and thinking independently
 Therefore, the aim of critical thinking is to arrive at well-reasoned, considered, and justifiable conclusions.
 The American philosopher, John Dewey, has defined critical thinking as
 an active, persistent, and careful consideration of a belief or supposed
form of knowledge
 ‘active’ ,refers think things through for yourself, raise questions yourself,
find relevant information yourself and so on, rather than learning in a
largely passive way from someone else.
 ‘persistent’ and ‘careful consideration’-- Dewey contrasting critical
thinking with the kind of unreflective thinking we all sometimes engage
in .
 For example, we sometimes jump to a conclusion or make a quick decision
without thinking about it.
 What Dewey is saying, to express it in a more familiar language, is that
what matters are the reasons we have for believing something and the
implications of our beliefs.
 Different scholars defined critical thinking differently.
 Edward Glaser defined critical thinking as:
1. An attitude of being disposed to consider in a thoughtful way the
problems and subjects that come within the range of one’s experience;
2. Knowledge of the methods of logical enquiry and reasoning; and
3. Some skill in applying those methods.
 Robert Ennis-defined critical thinking as reasonable, reflective thinking that is
focused on deciding what to believe or do.
 So ‘deciding what to . . . do’, or decision-making is an important part of
critical thinking in Ennis’s conception.

 For Richard Paul Critical thinking is Mode of thinking about
any subject, content or problem – in which the thinker
improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillful thinking
and imposing intellectual standards upon them. Paul associates
critical thinking with reflecting on thoughts.
 Michael Scriven has defined critical thinking as skilled and
active interpretation and evaluation of observations and
communications, information and argumentation.
 interpretation‘ of texts, speech, film, graphics, actions and e body language helps to construct and select the best alternatives
 evaluating the truth, probability or reliability of claims. Evaluation is the process of determining the merit, quality, worth, or value of
something‘
 According to Scriven to be critical, thinking has to meet certain standards
like clarity, relevance, reasonableness and so on.
 Critical thinking is sometimes referred to as ‘criticocreative’ thinking. This
word is the combination of two words: critical and creative.
 This is because critical thinking is a kind of evaluative thinking – which
involves both criticism and creative thinking –
and
particularly concerned with the quality of
reasoning or argument that is presented in support
of a belief, or a course of action.
Standards of Critical Thinking
To identify a critical thinking from the uncritical, we refer to some
standards.
The most important intellectual standards are clarity, precision,
accuracy, relevance, consistency, logical correctness, completeness,
and fairness.
1. Clarity: refers to clear understanding of concepts and clearly
expressing them in a language that is free of obscurity and vagueness.
2. Precision: refers a matter of being exact, accurate and careful.
Most ideas are vague and obscures though we think we have precise
understanding of them.
 3. Accuracy: refers to correct/genuine information.
 Decision based on wrong and false information will likely to result in
distorting realities.
4. Relevance: refers to the connections of ideas
 Critical thinkers carefully choose only the information that has logical relation
with the ideas at hands
 5. Consistency:- refers to the quality of having the same opinions or standards.
 Logic tells us that if a person holds inconsistent beliefs, at least one of those
beliefs must be false.
 There are two kinds of inconsistency that should be avoided.
 Logical Inconsistency, which involves saying or believing
inconsistent things (i.e., things that cannot both or all be true)
about a particular matter.
 Practical Inconsistency, which involves saying one thing
and doing another.
6. Logical Correctness:- When the combinations of
thoughts are mutually supporting and make sense in
combination, the thinking is logical.
 To think logically is to reason correctly, therefore we need
to use accurate and well supported beliefs.
7. Completeness: Deep and complete thinking are more
preferable than shallow and superficial thinking. Thinking is
better when it is deep rather than shallow, thorough rather
than superficial.
8. Fairness :- Refers open minded, impartial, and free of
distorting biases and preconceptions.
Principles of Good Argument
 1.
The Structural Principle
 An argument should meet the fundamental structural
requirements of a well-formed argument.
 In other words, it should be formed in such a way that
 The conclusion either follows necessarily from its
premises, in the case of deductive arguments, or
 The conclusion Follows probably from its premises, in
the case of inductive arguments.
 2.The Relevance Principle
 An argument should set forth only reasons whose truth
provides some evidence for the truth of the conclusion.
 The premises of a good argument must be relevant to the
truth or merit of the conclusion.
3. The Acceptability Principle
 The reasons set forth in support of a conclusion must be
acceptable.
4. The Sufficiency Principle
 An argument should attempt to provide relevant and
acceptable reasons of the right kind, that together are
sufficient in number and weight to justify the
acceptance of the conclusion.
5. The Rebuttal Principle
 An argument should be with effective rebuttal to all
anticipated serious criticisms that may be brought
against it.
 Principles of Critical Thinking
 1. The Fallibility Principle
 Each participant in a discussion of a disputed issue should be willing to
accept the fact that he or she is imperfect.
 One must acknowledge that one’s own initial view may not be the most
defensible position on the question.
 2. The Truth Seeking Principle
 Each participant should be committed to the task of seriously searching for
the truth
 One should be willing to examine alternative positions seriously and look
for insights in the positions of others.
3. The Clarity Principle
It requires that the formulations of all positions, defenses, and
attacks should be free of any kind of linguistic confusion and
clearly separated from other positions and issues.
4. The Burden of Proof Principle
 This principle requires that the burden of proof for any position
usually rests on the participant who sets forth the position.
 If an opponent asks the proponent should provide an argument
for that position.

5. The Principle of Charity
If a participant’s argument is reformulated by an opponent, it
should be carefully expressed in its strongest possible
version that is consistent with what is believed to be the
original intention of the arguer.
If there is any question about the argument, the arguer
should be given the benefit of any doubt in the
reformulation and/or, when possible, given the opportunity
to amend it.
6. The Suspension of Judgment Principle
 This principle requires that if no position is defended by a good
argument, or if two or more positions seem to be defended with
equal strength, one should suspend judgment about the issue.
 If practical considerations seem to require a more immediate
decision, one should weigh the relative benefits or harm
connected with the consequences of suspending judgment and
decides the issue on those grounds.
 If suitable evidence is so lacking that one has no good basis for
making a decision either way, it may be quite appropriate to
suspend judgment on the matter and wait until there is more of a
basis for decision.
7 . The Resolution Principle
 An issue should be considered resolved if the argument is
a structurally sound
uses relevant and acceptable reasons
provide sufficient grounds to justify the
conclusion and
include an effective rebuttal to all serious
criticisms and/or the position it supports .
 Characteristics of Critical Thinking
Basic Traits of Critical Thinkers
 There are some dispositions and attitudes, skills and abilities, habits
and values that every critical person should manifest.
Critical thinkers:
 Are honest with themselves, acknowledging what they don't know,
recognizing their limitations, and being watchful of their own
errors.
 Regard problems and controversial issues as exciting/stimulating
challenges.
 Strive for understanding, keep curiosity alive, remain patient with
complexity, and are ready to invest time to overcome confusion.
 Base judgments on evidence rather than personal
preferences, deferring judgment whenever evidence is
insufficient.
 They revise judgments when new evidence reveals error.
 Are interested in other people's ideas even when they
tend to disagree with the other person.
 Recognize that extreme views (whether conservative or
liberal) are seldom correct, so they avoid them, practice
fair-mindedness, and seek a balance view.
 Practice restraint(controlling) their feelings rather than
being controlled by them, and thinking before acting.
 Basic Traits of Uncritical Thinkers
Some traits of uncritical thinkers includes:-
 Believe they know more than they do, ignore their limitations, and assume
their views are error-free.
 Regard problems and controversial issues as nuisances or threats to their ego.
 Are inpatient with complexity and remain confused than make the effort to
understand.
 Base judgments on first impressions and gut/instinctive reactions. And
tend to follow their feelings
 Are preoccupied with themselves and their own opinions, and
 Are unwilling to pay attention to others' views. At the first sign of
disagreement, they tend to think, "How can I refute this?“
 Ignore the need for balance and give preference to views that support their
established views.
 Key intellectual traits of critical thinkers and the relevant traits
of uncritical thinkers
 First, critical thinkers have a passionate drive for clarity,
precision, accuracy, and other critical thinking standards while
uncritical thinker’s are unclear, imprecise, and inaccurate.
 In addition to this, critical thinkers are sensitive to ways in which
critical thinking can be skewed by egocentrism, sociocentrism,
wishful thinking, and other impediments,
 while uncritical thinkers often fall prey to egocentrism,
sociocentrism, relativistic thinking, unwarranted assumptions,
and wishful thinking.
 Second, critical thinkers are skilled at understanding,
analyzing, and evaluating arguments whereas uncritical
thinkers often misunderstand or evaluate unfairly
 Critical thinkers reason logically, draw appropriate
conclusions from evidence and data, while uncritical thinkers
are illogical, and draw unsupported conclusions
 Third, critical thinkers are intellectually honest with
themselves, acknowledging what they do not know and
recognizing their limitations while uncritical thinkers pretend
they know more than they do and ignore their limitations.
 Furthermore, critical thinkers listen open-mindedly to
Fourth, critical thinkers base their beliefs on facts and evidence while
uncritical thinkers often base beliefs on mere personal preferences or self-
interests.
Critical thinkers are aware of the biases and preconceptions that shape the
way they perceive the world, whereas uncritical thinkers lack awareness of
their own biases and preconceptions.
Fifth, critical thinkers think independently and are not afraid to disagree
with group opinion whereas uncritical thinkers tend to engage in “groupthink”
uncritically following the beliefs and values of the crowd.
Moreover, critical thinkers have the intellectual courage to face and assess
fairly ideas that challenge even their most basic beliefs whereas uncritical
thinkers fear and resist ideas that challenge their basic beliefs..
Finally yet importantly, critical thinkers pursue truth despite obstacles or
difficulties whereas uncritical thinkers are often relatively indifferent to
truth and lack curiosity.
  Barriers to Critical Thinking
 Egocentrism, Sociocentrism, Unwarranted Assumptions and Stereotypes,
Relativistic Thinking and Wishful Thinking are some of the barriers to
Critical Thinking
 1. Egocentrism
 Egocentrism is the tendency to see reality as centered on oneself.
 Egocentrics are selfish, self-absorbed people who view their interests, ideas,
and values as superior to everyone else’s.
 Two common forms Egocentrism are self-interested thinking and the
superiority bias.
 Self-interested thinking is the tendency to accept and defend beliefs that
harmonize with one’s self-interest. Almost no one is immune to self-
interested thinking.
 For example, most doctors support legislation making it more difficult for them to be sued
for malpractice because they do not want to punish for mistakes committed in the
superiority bias (also known as illusory superiority or the
better-than average effect) is the tendency to overrate
oneself - to see oneself as better in some respect than one
actually is.
2. Sociocentrism
 It is group-centered thinking and it can hinder rational
thinking by focusing excessively on the group.
 It can distort critical thinking in many ways. Two of the
most important types of Sociocentrism are group bias and
conformism.
 Group bias is the tendency to see one’s own
group (nation, tribe, sect, peer group, and the
like) as being inherently better than others.
 Most people absorb group bias unconsciously,
usually from early childhood.
 Conformism refers to our tendency to follow
the crowd unthinkingly to authority or to
group standards of conduct and belief.
 Unwarranted Assumptions and Stereotypes
3.

 An assumption is something we believe to be true without

any proof or conclusive evidence. Almost everything we
think and do is based on assumptions.
 If the weather report calls for rain, we take an umbrella
because we assume that
 the meteorologist is not lying,
 the report is based on a scientific analysis of
weather patterns,
 the instruments are accurate, and so forth.
 4. Relativistic Thinking
 Relativism is the view that truth is a matter of opinion. It is
strongest challenges to critical thinking.
 There is no objective or absolute standard of truth.
 There are two popular forms of relativism: subjectivism and
cultural relativism.
 A. Subjectivism
 It is the view that truth is a matter of individual opinion.
 Whatever an individual believes is true, is true for that person, and
there is no such thing as “objective” or “absolute” truth, i.e., truth
that exists independent of what anyone believes.
 For example, suppose Abdella believes that abortion is wrong
and Obang believes that abortion is not always wrong. According
to subjectivism, abortion is always wrong for Abdella and not
always wrong for Obang. Both beliefs are true – for them.
 B. Cultural Relativism
 It believe that truth is a matter of social or cultural
opinion.What is true is whatever most people in a society or
culture believe to be true.
 e.g Drinking wine is widely considered to be wrong in Iran but is
not generally considered to be wrong in France. Therefore,
drinking wine is immoral in Iran but is morally permissible in
France.
 The most common form of relativism is moral relativism.
 Moral subjectivism is the view that what is morally right
and good for an individual, A, is whatever A believes is
morally right and good.
 Moral subjectivism comes in two major forms: moral
subjectivism and cultural moral relativism.
 5. Wishful Thinking

 It refers to a state of believing something not because you

had good evidence for it but simply because you wished it
were true.
 People fear the unknown and invent comforting myths to
Benefits of Critical Thinking
Critical Thinking: Skills and Dispositions
 Critical thinking teaches
 how to raise and identify fundamental questions and
problems in the community.
 How to reformulate these problems clearly and precisely.
 How to gather and assess relevant information,
 How develop reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing
them against relevant criterion and standards.
 How to be open minded to alternative system of thought,
recognize and assess your own assumptions, implications
Critical thinking is what university is all about.
University is not only about teaching students with facts.
It’s about teaching students to think(think critically).
Critical Thinking in the Classroom
Students learn a variety of skills that can greatly improve
their classroom performance. These skills include:
 Understanding the arguments and beliefs of others
 Critically evaluating those arguments and beliefs
 Developing and defending one’s own well-supported
arguments and beliefs
 Also, critical thinking can help us
 To avoid making foolish personal decisions.
 To promote democratic processes. In democracy, it is the people
who have the ultimate say over who governs and for what
purposes. Citizens should vote, should evaluate different public
policies, and collectively determine their fate and et cetera.
 To have personal enrichment/improvement it can bring to our lives.
One of the most basic truths of the human condition is that most
people, most of the time, believe what they are told.
The End