LCOS 122

Models of Communication
 A model is a structure that represents a theory
(Frigg and Hartman, 2009) or a concept.
 Models of communication therefore help us to
understand what communication is all about.
 Narula (2006) points out that communication
models serve four functions:
 They organize the various elements and the process
of the act of communication in a meaningful
and interesting way.
 They help in the discovery of new facts about
communication.
 They enable us to make predictions concerning
communications i.e. what will happen under certain
conditions.
 They may provide the means of measuring the
means and processes involved in communication.
Various scholars have suggested many models of
communication. However, in this section you
will study four most basic models. These
include:
 Aristotle’s Model of Communication
 The Shanon-Weaver Model of Communication
 The Schramm’s Model of Communication
 The SMCR Model of Communication
Aristotle’s Model of Communication
• As the name suggests, this model was
suggested by Aristotle, an ancient Greek
philosopher. His model was simple and linear.
The model suggested that communication is
composed of five essential elements: the
speaker, the speech or message, the audience,
the occasion or event, and the effect.
COMMUNICATION THEORY

Language and
Communication
Studies

LCOS-122
 COMMUNICATION THEORY
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
 Define communication
 Discuss communication theory
 Analyse various communication models
 Describe elements in the communication
process
 Apply communication models to real life
communication contexts.
What is communication?
Various definitions:
 Griffin (2012) observes that to ask the question above
is “to invite controversy.”
 Frank Dance is credited with publishing the first
comprehensive book on communication theory over
four decades ago.
 There were already numerous definitions at the time of
his writing.
 Numerous other definitions have emerged ever since.
 Origins of the word itself are traced from the Latin word
communicare meaning “to share, divide out;
communicate, impart, inform; join, unite, participate in”
literally meaning “to make common” (Online Etymology
Dictionary).
 Griffin (2012: 6) proposes a definition of communication
which he calls a definition “for starters.”
 He defines communication as “the relational process
creating and interpreting messages that elicit a
response.”
Griffin’s definition identifies five features of
communication, namely;
 Messages which “are the core of
communication” and as you will see later, the
message may be verbal or non-verbal.
 These messages have to be created.
 The created messages do not interpret themselves.
“The meaning that a message holds for both the
creators and receivers doesn’t reside in the words that
are spoken, written, or acted out.” A popular saying
among scholars of communication says that “words
don’t mean things, people mean things.” In other
words, it is the people that attach meaning to the
words. This may be done by trying to understand what
the actual words mean and/or by analysing the non-
verbal communication that accompanies spoken
words.
 Communication is a relational process in the
sense that “it takes place between two or
more persons” or entities and “also because it
affects the nature of the connections among
those people” or entities.
 The message has to elicit a response or in
other words it should have an effect on the
people that receive it. According to Griffin,
any message that does not bring out “any
cognitive, emotional, or behavioral reaction”
should not be regarded as communication.
Communication Theory
 Although human beings have always
communicated in some way or another, it took
some time before communication itself was
analyzed.
 In the twentieth century, people began to
study the communication process with
intensity.
 Over time, this study became known as
Communication Theory.
 Because communication is central to the
human experience, it is the main focus to the
study of Communication Theory.
 However, as is the case with the definition of
communication above, there is no unified
communication theory.
 S.F. Scudder is generally acknowledged by
most scholars to have generated the first
“universal law of communication” in the early
1900 and later published in 1980.
 This “law” is what has shaped the field of
communication theory.
 Scudder stated in his law that "all living
entities, beings and creatures communicate
through sounds, reactions, physical exchange,
movement, gestures, languages, etc."
 Scudder further determined that
communication is often used as a means of
survival; such as when a baby cries because it
is hungry or when the leaves of a plant turn
brown due to lack of water.
Activity:
Do you agree with S.F. Scudder’s view that “all
living entities” including plants communicate
using various forms of communication?
Discuss your thoughts with your colleagues.
How wide is Scudder’s law in terms of its
coverage of communication entities and
forms?
 Craig (1999) proposed that we can understand
communication theory when we understand
communication as a practical discipline instead of
looking for one complete communication theory.
 He therefore suggested that we should talk of a
field of communication theory in which there are
several approaches that reveal how different
scholars study communication problems and
approaches.
The social-psychological tradition:
 This views communication as interpersonal
interaction and influence.
 Scholars in this tradition believe there are
communication truths that can be discovered
by careful, systematic observation.
 They look for cause-and-effect relationships
that will predict the results when people
communicate.
The cybernetic tradition:
 A simple definition of cybernetics is “the scientific
study of information processing, feedback, and
control in communication systems.
 The cybernetic tradition views communication as a
system of information processing which regards
communication as the link connecting the separate
parts of any system, such as a computer system, a
family system, a media system, or a system of social
support.
 The rhetorical tradition:
 Rhetoric refers to the art of using all available means of
persuasion, focusing upon lines of argument, organization
of ideas, language use, and delivery in public speaking.
 This tradition views communication as a skillful way of
public address.
 It originated from famous Greek and Roman public speakers
such as Plato, Aristotle, and Cicero. Griffin (2012) lists the
main features of this tradition. Here are five of those
features:
.
1. A strong belief that speech distinguished
human beings from animals.
2. A confidence that public address delivered in
a democratic environment is a more effective
way of solving political problems than ruling
by decree or through the use of force.
3. A setting in which a single speaker attempts
to influence many listeners through language
in order to make them agree with him or her.
4. Training in public speaking as the foundation
for the education of a leader.
5. An emphasis on the power and beauty of
language to move people emotionally and
influence them to take action.
The semiotic tradition:
 This tradition views communication as the
process of sharing meaning through signs.
 Semiotics is the study of verbal and non-verbal
signs that can stand for something else, and
how their interpretation affects society.
 A sign is anything that can stand for
something.
 For example, a red light on the dashboard of
your car may be a sign that you have forgotten
to fasten your seat belt.
 A headache may mean that you have malaria.
 Words are a special type of signs, different
from the example given above.
 They are symbols in the sense that there is no
direct connection between a word and what it
stands for.
 So too are nonverbal signs such as winks.
There is nothing in the word ‘dog’ for
example, that makes it refer to the animal the
word represents.
 Most scholars in the semiotic tradition try to
explain and reduce misunderstandings that
result from ambiguous statements and other
forms of nonverbal communication.
The socio-cultural tradition:
 This tradition regards communication as the
creation and performing of social reality.
 The tradition is based on the idea that as
people talk, they produce and reproduce
culture.
 The theorists in this tradition argue that our
view of reality is strongly shaped by the
language we use and not the other way round.
• They further argue that it is through the
process of communication that “reality is
produced, maintained, repaired, and
transformed.”
The critical tradition:
 This tradition considers communication as a
mirror of the challenge of unfair conversation.
 Critical theorists are against three features of
modern society. The features are:
1. The control of language to perpetuate power
imbalances. The theorists in this tradition
condemn any use of words that hinder
liberation.
2. The role of mass media in making people less
sensitive to oppression. Critical theorists
accuse television, film, and print media of
reproducing the dominant ideology and of
taking people’s interest away from recognizing
the unjust distribution of power that exists in
society.
3. Blind following of scientific methods of
research and uncritical acceptance of
scientific research findings. Critical
theorists are suspicious of the findings that
scientists claim are free of any ideology,
because according to them, science is not
value-free as it claims to be.
The phenomenological tradition:
 Phenomenology refers to a planned analysis of
everyday life from the point of view of the
person who is living it.
 The tradition places great emphasis on how
people view and interpret their own
experience.
• The problem, however, lies in the fact that no two
people can experience each other’s experience.
Thus theorists within the phenomenological
tradition seek to answer two questions:
• Why is it so difficult to establish and maintain
genuine human relationships?
• What can be done to solve this problem?
Activity 1c Traditions of Communication Theory
 Pick out any of the traditions of
communication theory discussed above and
explain how it can be useful in any
communication situation you can think of.
The Communication process
 Communication involves transferring and receiving
information between two people or two entities (or
from one point to another).
 It is always between at least two people or entities
– source (who may sometimes be also the sender)
and receiver – and the roles will change frequently.
 But the message must be understood for
communication to be considered complete.
• Understanding occurs only in the mind of the
receiver or the receiving entity.
• They are responsible for completing the
communication process by providing feedback
to the source.
Key communication elements
 Communication elements must always be
there for communication to take place.
 These elements are the receiver, the nature of
the content, the method of communication,
and the situation in which the communication
is taking place.
The receiver
 Depending on the circumstances, the receiver
could be someone you are familiar with or not.
 Your familiarity (or lack of it) with the receiver will
determine the nature of the content of your
communication, the most appropriate method of
communication, and the situation.
 It is always important for you as a sender/source
to always put yourself in the shoes of the receiver.
The nature of the content
 The content of your communication must always be
clear and understandable.
 Where necessary avoid communication that will be
interpreted in more than one way by the receiver
 Avoid too much use of technical language (of course
this will be determined by how much you know about
the receiver) that may affect the clarity of your
communication.
 Also avoid content that may offend the receiver.
The method
 Depending on your knowledge of the receiver, the
nature of your content, and the situation in which
your communication will take place, you can then
decide whether to make your communication
verbal, non-verbal, written or electronic.
 If for example, you are in the same room with the
receiver, and you and the receiver know each other
very well, verbal and non-verbal communication
may be appropriate.
The situation
 Refers to the physical (e.g. distance), social
(e.g. culture), and psychological (e.g. attitude)
conditions between the sender and receiver
that may affect the process of communication.
 For example, physical distance between the
sender and receiver will determine whether
the communication should be verbal or
written/electronic.
Activity
 How can cultural differences between the
sender and the receiver influence the choice
of method of communication? Discuss with
your friends.
Common barriers to effective communication
 Barriers to effective communication are
generally classified into three:
 personal,
 situational,
 social barriers.
Personal barriers
 include attitude of both the sender and the
receiver, pre-judgement, the “I have heard it
all before” syndrome, miscommunication
(intended or accidental) filtering, selective
perception, and defensiveness.
 Negative attitude by either the sender or the
receiver can hinder effective communication from
taking place.
 So too can the tendency to pre-judge the sender or
receiver before communication has taken place.
 Another personal barrier is the tendency by the
receiver to assume that they already know much
about the content of the communication.
 This makes the receiver pay little or no attention to
the sender, resulting in little or no communication.
 In filtering, the sender manipulates
information so that it will be seen more
favourably by the receiver.
 This can be a barrier if during the process of
filtering, the sender leaves out important
information for fear that the receiver will find
it unfavorable or offending.
 Selective perception refers to a situation
where you as a receiver selectively see and
hear based on your needs, motivations,
experiences, background and other personal
characteristics.
 In the end you leave out certain important
information because it does not conform to
those personal characteristics.
 Defensiveness happens when you as a receiver
interpret the sender’s message as threatening.
When this happens you are likely to respond in
ways that may retard effective communication,
such as withholding information or using
strong and emotional language.
 Personal barriers are easy to overcome as the
people involved in the communication process
can influence them.
Situational barriers:
 include improper timing, noise and other
distractions in the environment, pressure of
time or other resources, unfamiliar language,
and difference in knowledge level between
the sender and the receiver relating to the
content of the communication.
 Situational barriers are more difficult to
control.
 However, careful forward planning and
thoughtful consideration can help reducing
their occurrence.
Social barriers:
 include differences between the sender and the
receiver in terms of status/power play/culture etc.
and relationship between the sender and the receiver.
 If, for example, there is so much emphasis on status
or power differences between the sender and the
receiver such that the communication process is seen
as taking place between unequal participants, it could
lead to dominance by one party while the other party
will just be passive.
 Similarly, if the relationship between the sender and the
receiver is poor communication can hardly take place.
 Necessary formalities can help reduce social barriers
during communication.
 If, for example, status and power differences between
the sender and the receiver are so evident that it is
perceived they could hinder the communication
process, the one with high status or more power can
take deliberate steps to reduce dominance, by
encouraging the one with low status or less power to
feel free to communicate.
Considerations for effective communication
 Seek to clarify your ideas before communicating.
 Examine the true purpose of communication.
 Consider the total physical and human setting.
 Consult with others in planning communication.
 Be mindful of the overtones (unintended
interpretations) as well as the basic content of
your message.
 Take the opportunity to convey something of help or
value to the receiver.
 Follow-up your communication to see if it was
understood in the manner you wanted.
 Be sure your actions support your communication.
Your non-verbal communication should not contradict
its verbal counterpart.
 Seek not only to be understood but to understand –
be a good listener. It is possible that your
communication might have been problematic.
Inclusive language
 Language is important in shaping and portraying
perceptions and attitudes, and is by no means
neutral.
 During communication, choosing certain words over
others can exclude and devalue people and
therefore hinder communication.
 On the other hand, choosing appropriate words
allows us to treat each other with dignity, respect
and sensitivity, thereby enhancing communication.
 This is what is called inclusive language.
 Inclusive language can be manifest in the way we
use gender terms, the way we talk about
disabilities, and the way we use pronouns.
Use of gender-neutral language:
 Use gender-free terms in writing or talking about
traditionally male or female activities.
 Let language usage reflect the fact that both men
and women are involved in workplace, home, etc.
 For example, avoid gendering terms by adding
“-man” or “-woman” as in “chairman” or
“chairwoman.”
 Instead say the chair or chairperson. Also
avoid occupational designations ending with –
ess, such as actress.
Talking about disability:
 Unless your communication is specifically
focused on disabilities, avoid singling out one’s
disabilities simply for the sake of identification.
 Avoid words that imply victimization or create
negative stereotypes (e.g., “victim” or “sufferer”
for someone with a disease).
 Avoid words such as “poor,” “unfortunate” or
“afflicted.”
Use of pronouns
 Avoid the pronoun he when both sexes are included.
You can alternatively:
 Recast the sentence into plural.
 Reword to eliminate the pronoun.
 Replace the masculine pronoun with one, you, or
(sparingly) he or she as appropriate.
 Use a plural indefinite pronoun (e.g. “All those who
are on the course should bring their notes with them
tomorrow.”)
Models of Communication
 A model is a structure that represents a theory
(Frigg and Hartman, 2009) or a concept.
 Models of communication therefore help us to
understand what communication is all about.
Narula (2006) points out that communication
models serve four functions:
 They organize the various elements and the process
of the act of communication in a meaningful and
interesting way.
 They help in the discovery of new facts about
communication.
 They enable us to make predictions concerning
communications i.e. what will happen under
certain conditions.
 They may provide the means of measuring the means
and processes involved in communication.
Various scholars have suggested many models of
communication. However, in this section you
will study four most basic models. These
include:
 Aristotle’s Model of Communication
 The Shanon-Weaver Model of Communication
 The Schramm’s Model of Communication
 The SMCR Model of Communication
Aristotle’s Model of Communication
 As the name suggests, this model was
suggested by Aristotle, an ancient Greek
philosopher.
 His model was simple and linear.
 The model suggested that communication is
composed of five essential elements: the
speaker, the speech or message, the audience,
the occasion or event, and the effect.
 For Aristotle, the speaker must tune his or her
message taking into consideration the
audience, the occasion, and the effect that
you want your message to have on your
audience.
 Aristotle’s model is more applicable to public
speaking than to interpersonal
communication. Figure 1.1 below summarises
this model.
Shannon-Weaver Model of Communication
 In 1949, Claude Shannon and Warner Weaver
proposed a model of communication.
 They proposed that during the communication
process the speaker (information source)
selects a desired message from all the possible
messages.
 The message is sent through a transmitter or
an encoder via a channel and changed into
signals (messages).
 The receiver (decoder) the signals which are
then delivered to the destination. In the
process of transmission, certain disturbances
may occur which are not part of the message
sent by the source.
 These are called noise.
 Shannon-Weaver’s model was criticized for its
presentation of the receiver as a passive
recipient who does not provide feedback to
the sender.
 This, critics observed, did not reflect real life
communication situations.
 Activity
Johnson’s boss instructs her secretary to make a phone
call to Johnson asking him to prepare to attend a board
meeting the following day. He also wants Johnson to
bring with him to the meeting designs of a new
physiotherapy machine he has been working on for the
board to consider. In the course of the conversation with
the boss’ secretary, a network problem disrupts the
phone call and Johnson’s secretary misses out the part in
which Johnson was being asked to bring the designs with
him to the meeting.
Discuss with your colleague who/what is in this situation.
 Discuss with your colleague who/what is in
this situation:
a) The source b) The sender c) The channel d)
The noise e) The receiver
f) The destination.
Schramm’s Model of Communication
 Proposed by Wilbur Schramm, this model of
communication contains several seemingly
simple ideas.
 Like most models of communication, it begins
with a sender and a receiver.
 However, unlike most theories, which are
linear, Schramm stated that communication is
basically circular.
 The receiver does not simply take in the
message and end there.
 S/he actively decodes the message and then
continues the cycle of communication by
replying or in some way acting upon the
information s/he has received.
 Schramm also discussed "transaction costs."
He said that the act of communicating is
neither immediate nor effortless.
 Both the sender and the receiver must put
time and effort into the act of
communicating.
 Schramm also proposed that two people who
are trying to communicate must have
something in common if they are to be
successful.
 This applies to more than just the obvious
need for a common language.
The SMCR Model of Communication
 The SMCR Model was proposed by David Berlo
in 1950.
 SMCR stands for Source, Message, Channel,
and Receiver, which Berlo considered to be
the four basic components of communication.
 There are five channels for each of the four
components (See Figure 1.4 below).
 Berlo also introduced the component of effect
into his model.
 He proposed that the message must have
some effect, positive or negative, on the
audience and that the effect must be
analyzed.
 Elements in the Communication Process
 Basic elements of communication made the
object of study of the communication theory.
 These, as you have seen from the models
presented the following:
Source:
 Shannon calls this element the "information
source", which produces a message or
sequence of messages to be communicated to
the receiving terminal.
 The source can be an individual, a group, or an
organization.
Sender:
 Shannon calls this element the "transmitter", which
operates on the message in some way to produce a
signal suitable for transmission over the channel.
 In Aristotle’s model, this element is the "speaker" (
orator).
 There are situations when the sender may also be
source, such as when you prepare a presentation
and deliver it yourself to a group of people.
 However, there are also situations when the
source and the sender are not the same, such
as when the company director gives a
message to his/her secretary and asks her to
make a phone call and deliver that message to
the intended destination.
Channel:
 The channel is merely the medium used to
transmit the signal from transmitter to
receiver.
 In the example under sender above, the
telephone line is the medium.
 In oral presentations, the channel may be
word of mouth and audio-visual aids.
Receiver:
 The receiver performs the inverse operation of
that done by the transmitter, reconstructing
the message from the signal.
Destination:
 The destination is the individual or a group for
whom the message is intended.
 There are situations when the receiver and
the destination may be the same.
 In the example under sender above, the
secretary to the company director may deliver
the message directly to the intended person
or may deliver the message through the
secretary to the destination.
 The former is a case in which the receiver and
the destination are the same while in the later,
the receiver is different from the destination.
Message:
 from Latin mittere, meaning "to send".
 The message is a concept, information,
communication, or statement that is sent in a
verbal or non-verbal, written, recorded, or
visual form to the recipient.
Feedback:
 This is some form of response by the
destination to the source to show that the
message was delivered.
 It may be in the form similar to the message
above.
 Feedback may also be in various other forms.
 For example, silence may be a form of
feedback.
 So too is noise during a presentation. If you
are a good communicator, you will check for
feedback because it will enable you to know
whether your message is having the desired
effect on the destination.
Discuss the difference between the Shannon-
Weaver Model and Schramm’s Model of
Communication.