Antenna Engineering

EC 544
Prof. Darwish Abdel Aziz
Lecture/Tutorial Guidance
Session Delivered by:
Lectures ( one Prof . Darwish Abd El Aziz
session per Room :A 117 and A 113
week)
Tutorials( one Eng. Khaled Youssef
session per Room:A 104 and A 111
week)
Laboratories Eng.
( one session per Room:
week)
02/07/2025 2
 Evaluation
100 Marks:
7th week: 7th week Exam Part 1 In the 4th week (14 marks)
(30 marks) 7th week Exam Part 2 In the 7th week (16 marks)
7th week Lab Exam (5 marks)
12th week: 12th week Exam In 11th week ( )(20 marks)
(20 marks) 12th week Lab Exam (5 marks)

‫ أعمال السنه‬Final Lab Exam in 14th week (5 marks)

(10 marks) Seminars (5 marks)

16th week: Final Exam in 16th week

(40 marks)

02/07/2025 3
 LECTURE 1

UNIFORM LINEAR ARRAYS

OUTLINE
 INTRODUCTION
 TWO – ELEMENT ARRAY
 N – ELEMENT LINEAR UNIFORM ARRAY
- The Array Factor For N – Element Linear Uniform Array
 INTRODUCTION
• Usually the radiation pattern of a single element is
relatively wide, and each element provides low
values of directivity.

• In many applications it is necessary to design

antennas with very directive characteristics (very
high gains) to meet the demands of long distance
communication.

• This can only be accomplished by

increasing the electrical size of the antenna

• Another way to enlarge the dimensions of the

antenna, without necessarily increasing the size of
the individual elements, is to form an assembly of
radiating elements in an electrical and geometrical
configuration.
 INTRODUCTION (continue)

• This new antenna, formed by multi-elements, is

referred to as an array.
• The individual elements of an array may be of any
form (wires, aperture, etc.).
• As it is known from electromagnetic, that the field
at a point equals to the vector summation of the
fields due to the individual sources so, The total
field of the array is determined by the vector
addition of the fields radiated by the individual
elements.
 INTRODUCTION (continue)

• To provide very directive patterns, it is necessary

that the fields from the elements of the array
interfere constructively (add) in the desired
directions and interfere destructively (cancel each
other) in the remaining space.
 INTRODUCTION (continue)

• In an array of identical elements, there are five

controls that can be used to shape the overall
pattern of the array. These are:

The relative pattern of the individual elements

 The geometrical configuration of the overall array

(Linear, Circular, Rectangular, Spherical, etc.).

The relative displacement between the elements

(d).
 INTRODUCTION (continue)

 The excitation amplitude of the individual

elements .
 The Progressive phase shift between the
individual elements.
 TWO – ELEMENT ARRAY
 The antenna under investigation is assumed to be
an array of two isotropic point antennas ( which is
hypothetical antenna that radiates equally in space
and it is used as a reference antenna) positioned
along the z – axis, symmetrically with respect to
origin.

Two Isotropic elements array

 TWO – ELEMENT ARRAY (continue)

Two Isotropic elements array (Far field observation)

TOTAL FIELD OF TWO ISOTROPIC ELEMENTS
ARRAY
 The total field radiated by the two isotropic
elements, assuming no coupling between the
elements and with identical amplitude of
excitations
, is equal to the sum of the two fields
and it is given by
TOTAL FIELD OF TWO ISOTROPIC ELEMENTS
ARRAY (continue)
TOTAL FIELD OF TWO ISOTROPIC ELEMENTS
ARRAY (continue)

It can be seen that, the total field of the array is equal to the
product of the field of a single element positioned at the origin
and a factor which is widely referred to as array factor.
Thus for the two-element array of constant amplitude, the
array factor is given by:
ARRAY FACTOR FOR TWO IDENTICAL
ELEMENTS AARAY
PATTERN MULTIPLICATION FOR IDENTICAL
ELEMENTS
 PATTERN MULTIPLICATION FOR IDENTICAL
ELEMENTS (continue)

 Each array has its own array factor. The array

factor in general is a function of the number

of elements, their geometrical arrangement,

their relative magnitudes and phases of

excitation, and their spacing.

 PATTERN MULTIPLICATION FOR IDENTICAL
ELEMENTS (continue)

• In an array of identical elements, there are four controls

that can be used to shape the overall pattern of the
array factor. These are:

 The geometrical configuration of the overall array

(Linear, Circular, Rectangular, Spherical, etc.).

 The relative displacement between the elements (d).

 The excitation amplitude of the individual elements

 The Progressive phase shift between the
individual elements.
 PATTERN MULTIPLICATION FOR IDENTICAL
ELEMENTS (continue)

 Since the array factor does not depend on the

directional characteristics of the radiating
elements themselves, it can be formulated by
replacing the actual elements with isotropic
(point) sources.

 The total field of the actual array is then obtained

using the multiplication rule
N – ELEMENT LINEAR UNIFORM ARRAY
 N – ELEMENT LINEAR ARRAY: UNIFORM
AMPLITUDE AND SPACING

The antenna under investigation is an array of N –

elements that have identical amplitudes

but each succeeding element has a progressive phase

lead current excitation relative to the proceeding one.

The array factor can be determined by considering the

elements to be isotropic point sources.
 N – ELEMENT LINEAR ARRAY: UNIFORM
AMPLITUDE AND SPACING
The array factor can be determined as:
N – ELEMENT LINEAR ARRAY: UNIFORM
AMPLITUDE AND SPACING
ARRAY FACTOR FOR N – ELEMENT LINEAR
UNIFORM ARRAY
ARRAY FACTOR FOR N – ELEMENT LINEAR
UNIFORM ARRAY
 ARRAY FACTOR FOR N – ELEMENT LINEAR
UNIFORM ARRAY

If the reference point (origin) is chosen to be the physical center

of the array, the array factor will be (Assignment 1):

For small values of ψ, the expression of the AF can be

approximated by:
 NORMALIZED ARRAY FACTOR FOR N – ELEMENT
LINEAR UNIFORM ARRAY

The array factor can be normalized by dividing the array factor by its maximum value, such that, its
maximum will be equal unity.
The maximum value is determined by equating its denominator to zero, where,

So,

Which is undefined value

 NORMALIZED ARRAY FACTOR FOR N – ELEMENT
LINEAR UNIFORM ARRAY

So, in order to determine the maximum value of the array factor, we have to differentiate
the numerator and the denominator, then substitute by . So the maximum of the
array factor is

So the normalized array factor will take the form of

 ASSIGMENT -1
Array Factor Of Odd N – Elements uniform Linear Array
With Reference Point at the Physical Center of the Array
For Odd Number of Elements

Prof. Darwish 30
 ASSIGMENT 1
Array Factor Of Odd N – Elements uniform Linear Array
With Reference Point at the Physical Center of the Array

The antenna under investigation is an array of N – elements

that have identical amplitudes

but each succeeding element has a progressive phase lead

current excitation relative to the proceeding one.

The array factor can be determined by considering the

elements to be isotropic point sources.
The array factor can be determined as:

Prof. Darwish 31
 ASSIGMENT -1
Array Factor Of Odd N – Elements uniform Linear Array
With Reference Point at the Physical Center of the Array

Prof. Darwish 32
 ASSIGMENT 1
Array Factor Of Odd N – Elements uniform Linear Array
With Reference Point at the Physical Center of the Array

Prof. Darwish 33
 ASSIGMENT 1
Array Factor Of Odd N – Elements uniform Linear Array
With Reference Point at the Physical Center of the Array

Prof. Darwish 34
 ASSIGMENT 2
Array Factor Of Even N – Elements uniform Linear Array
With Reference Point at the Physical Center of the Array

Prof. Darwish 35
 ASSIGMENT 2
Array Factor Of Even N – Elements uniform Linear Array
With Reference Point at the Physical Center of the Array

Prof. Darwish 36
 ASSIGMENT 2
Array Factor Of Even N – Elements uniform Linear Array
With Reference Point at the Physical Center of the Array

Prof. Darwish 37
 ASSIGMENT 2
Array Factor Of Even N – Elements uniform Linear Array
With Reference Point at the Physical Center of the Array

Prof. Darwish 38
 ASSIGMENT 3
NULLS OF THE ARRAY FACTOR FOR N – ELEMENT LINEAR

UNIFORM ARRAY

To find the nulls of the array (the angle , at which ) the

array factor (its numerator) is set to zero. That is
 ASSIGMENT 3
NULLS OF THE ARRAY FACTOR FOR N – ELEMENT LINEAR

UNIFORM ARRAY

So the angles of null of the array factor can be determined as

For n = 0, N, 2N,…, the (AF)n attains its maximum values because it

reduces to a sin(0)/0 form. The values of n determine the order of the

nulls (first, second, etc.). Since the argument of the arccosine cannot
exceed unity, so the number of nulls that can exist is a function of the
element separation d and the progressive phase excitation β.
 ASSIGMENT 4
MAXIMA (PRINCIPLE) OF THE ARRAY FACTOR FOR N – ELEMENT
LINEAR UNIFORM ARRAY
To find the maxima of the normalized array factor

, the denominator of the array factor is set to

zero. That is
 ASSIGMENT 4
MAXIMA (PRINCIPLE) OF THE ARRAY FACTOR FOR N – ELEMENT
LINEAR UNIFORM ARRAY

So the angles of maxima of the array factor can be determined as

m = 0 for main maximum and m = 1, 2, …. For grating maxima.

The values of m determine the order of the grating maxima (first,
second, etc.). Since the argument of the arccosine cannot exceed
unity, so the number of maxima that can exist is a function of the
element separation d and the progressive phase excitation β.
 ASSIGMENT 4
MAXIMA (PRINCIPLE) OF THE ARRAY FACTOR FOR N – ELEMENT
LINEAR UNIFORM ARRAY

First Main Maximum occurs when m = 0, where

Other Grating Maxima occur when m = 1, 2, …, where

 ASSIGMENT 5
HALF POWER POINT (- 3 dB) OF THE ARRAY FACTOR FOR N –
ELEMENT LINEAR UNIFORM ARRAY

In order to determine the half power points (- 3 dB points) for the

array factor, the following form of AF will be used:

The half power points (- 3 dB points) for the array factor, occurs when
 ASSIGMENT 5
HALF POWER POINT (- 3 dB) OF THE ARRAY FACTOR FOR N –
ELEMENT LINEAR UNIFORM ARRAY

So, The half power points (3 – dB points) for the array factor occurs when
 ASSIGMENT 5
HALF POWER POINT (- 3 dB) OF THE ARRAY FACTOR FOR N –
ELEMENT LINEAR UNIFORM ARRAY

The half power beam width (HPBW) can be determined once the
angles of the first maximum (θm) and the half-power point (θh) are

determined. For a symmetrical pattern

HPBW = 2| θm - θh |
 ASSIGMENT 6
THE SECONDARY MAXIMA OF THE ARRAY FACTOR FOR N –
ELEMENT LINEAR UNIFORM ARRAY

There are secondary maxima (maximum of minor lobes) which occur approximately
when the numerator of the AF attains its maximum value . That is,
 ASSIGMENT 6
THE SECONDARY MAXIMA OF THE ARRAY FACTOR FOR N –
ELEMENT LINEAR UNIFORM ARRAY

NOTE
Why s does not start with S = 0
For S = 0 (for first secondary maximum)

But it was shown before that, for null of the AF

For n = 1 (for first null)

Since it is not right that, the first secondary maximum occurs before the first
null.

For that reason, S must start with S = 1 for the first secondary maximum.
 ASSIGMENT 6
THE SECONDARY MAXIMA OF THE ARRAY FACTOR FOR N –
ELEMENT LINEAR UNIFORM ARRAY

The maximum of the first minor lobe occurs when

At that point, the magnitude of AF reduces to

Thus the maximum of the first minor lobe of AF is -13.46 dB down from the maximum
at main lobe.
 ASSIGMENT 6
THE SECONDARY MAXIMA OF THE ARRAY FACTOR FOR N –
ELEMENT LINEAR UNIFORM ARRAY

The maximum of the second minor lobe occurs when

At that point, the magnitude of AF reduces to

Thus the maximum of the second minor lobe of AF is -41.239 dB down from the maximum at main lobe.