Learning Objectivities

On completion of this lecture the learner will be

able to:
 Describe the process of hematopoiesis.
 Describe the significance of physical
assessment and diagnostic test findings to the
diagnosis of hematologic dysfunction.
 Identify therapies for blood disorders.
introduction
Haematology is the branch of medicine concerned with 

the study of blood, blood-forming organs and blood

diseases such as-hemophilia,hematologic malignancies

concerned with diseases of the blood and blood-forming 

.tissues

The medical aspect of hematology is concerned with 

the treatment of blood disorders and malignancies,

including types of hemophilia, leukemia, lymphoma
and sickle-cell anemia
Anatomy and physiology

 Hematologic system consists of the blood and the sites

where the blood is produced.

 Blood consists of plasma and blood cells.

 Because blood cells have a short lifespan,

hematopoiesis (production of blood cells in the bone
marrow) is needed.

3
Function of Blood
 Transporting fluids such as:
 Nutrients from digestive tract
 O2 from lungs
 Waste from cells
 Hormones

 Aids in heat distribution

 Regulates acid-base balance

Blood Composition

Blood is made up of several parts, including red blood cells, white blood cells
and platelets (combined, about 45% of volume) as well as plasma (about 55%
of volume).
Normal Ranges

 RBC: Female 3.6-5.0x106mm3

Male 4.2-5.4x106mm3
 Hgb: female 12-16 g/dL male 14-17.4 g/dL
 WBC: 4.5-10.5x103mm3 (African Americans is
sltly lower 3.2 is still normal)
 Platelets: 140-400x103mm3
 Composition of Blood

 Plasma: liquid portion of blood w/out cells

 Contains all of the following

Water Nutrients

Electrolytes Metabolic waste product

Hormones Vitamins and

enzymes

Plasma proteins such as fibrinogen, albumin and

globulin
Composition of Blood:
1.Erythrocytes
 Red blood cells are responsible for:
 Transport of oxygen and nutrients
 Removal of waste and CO2 from the cells
 Distribution of heat
 Hemoglobin:
 The O2 carrying molecules.
 Has 4 subunits, each contains a hem attached to
a globin chain.
 Iron is present in the hem, hem is bind to the
oxygen
 Composition of Blood:
2. Leukocytes
 WBC are responsible for:

 Phagocytosis – to engulf and absorb waste material and

harmful microorganisms in the blood stream and tissues

 Synthesis of antibody molecules

 Inflammation process

 Production of heparin – component found in lung and liver

tissue which have the ability to prevent clotting of blood.
Composition of Blood:
Leukocytes (cont.)
 Types of Leukocytes
 Granulocytes

Neutrophils

Eosinophils

Basophils

 Agranulocytes

Lymphocytes

Monocytes
Composition of Blood:
Thrombocytes( Platelets)
 Platelets – the smallest of the solid components
of the blood

 Responsible for the clotting process of the

blood

 Coagulation: term for clotting

Blood Types

 Four Major Groups

A B AB O

 Blood types are inherited from your parents

 Antigen is present on the red blood cell; typing is done

w/rbc

 Antibody is present in the plasma; antibody screening

done on plasma
 Blood Types
 O negative
 Universal donor
 It carries no antigen

 AB positive
 Universal recipient
 It carries no antibodies in the plasma

 43% of population are O, 42% A, 12% B and 3%

AB
ABO & Rh compatibility
 Blood is classified according to the presence of these antigens:
 Group A contains antigen A
 Group B contains antigen B
 Group AB contains both antigens
 Group O contains neither antigen

 Blood plasma contains antibodies against the opposite antigen:

 A person with Type A blood has antibodies against the B antigen
 A person with Type AB blood has no antibodies (Universal Recipient)

 A person with Type O blood has antibodies against the A, B & AB

antigens (Universal Donor).
ABO & Rh compatibility
 People with Rhesus factors in their blood are classified as "Rh
positive"

 People without the factors are classified as "Rh negative"

 Rh negative persons form antibodies against the Rh factor if they

are exposed to Rh positive blood

 Conclusion:

 Blood transfusion between incompatible groups causes an

immune response against the cells carrying the antigen,
resulting in transfusion reaction
Rh Factor
 found on the surface of rbc Recipient
+ -
 Rhesus factor: discovered in rhesus Donor
OK OK
monkeys in 1937 +
- NO OK
 Can be phenotypically positive or
negative

 Positive is dominant over negative

 If positive is present, then you will

express positive phenotype
Blood Transfusion Compatibility Chart
Anemia
 Is a condition in which the hemoglobin concentration is lower
than normal (low RBCs).

 As a result, the amount of oxygen delivered to the tissue is lower

than normal.

 It is not a disease but a sign of underlying disorders.

Anemia
Ertyhropoiesis:

 Is the production of RBC in the bone marrow

 When RBCs are low, the kidney releases erythropoietin to

stimulate the bone marrow to produce more RBCs

 People who live at high altitudes with lower atmospheric

concentration, have more erythropoietin level in their bodies.

 Bone marrow required substances to produce RBCs which

include: Iron, Vit B12 &6, flote, proteins, and others.


Classifications of Anemia

ↆↆↆ
Clinical Manifestations of
Anemia

 Caused by the body’s response to hypoxia

 Mild (Hb 10 -14) no symptoms or minor changes

 Moderate – (Hg 6 – 10) CV Changes: palpitations, dyspnea,

diaphoresis

 Severe – (Hg<6) multiple body system CV, Cerebral, Major Organs

 Anemia
Clinical Manifestations
Iron-Deficiency Anemia
Etiology: Inadequate dietary intake, malabsorption, blood loss, or hemolysis
Clinical Manifestations:
 Pallor
 Glossitis – inflammation of the tongue
 Cheilitis – inflammation of the lips
 Headache, paresthesia, burning sensation of the tongue

Diagnostic Studies: Lab Studies, Endoscopy to identify GI bleed

Treatment:
 Oral Iron replacement (Iron absorbed best in duodenum)
 Ferrous sulfate – take about one hour prior to meal

Nursing Management – Diet & Medication Instruction

Thalassemia
Genetic disorder of inadequate production of normal hemoglobin
 Hemolysis occurs
 Abnormal Hb synthesis
 Ethnic groups of Mediterranean Sea & near equatorial regions of Asia and
Africa
Clinical Manifestation:
 mild – moderate anemia with hypochromia (pale cells) or microcytosis (small
cells)
 Minor: one thalassemic gene – mild
 Major: two thalassemic genes – severe – physical & mental growth retarded -
cardiac failure is fatal
Medical Management:
 Medication: Chelation Therapy IV deferoxamine (Desferal) – iron binding
agent to reduce iron overload
 Transfusions to maintain Hg >10g/dl

Nursing Management: Supportive

 Megaloblastic Anemias
Caused by impaired DNA synthesis & characterized
by the presence of large RBCs
Causes: Pernicious anemia, nutritional deficiency; heredity enzyme
defect
Clinical Manifestations: GI—sore tongue, anorexia, N&V, abdominal
pain; muscle weakness, paresthesias of feet and hands; confusion
Diagnostic Testing: Serum cobalamin levels; gastroscopy; Schilling
Test – assesses parietal cell function
Medical Management: Parenteral administration of cobalamin – daily
for 2 weeks, then weekly until >HCT, then monthly for life;
intranasal form
Nursing Management: Health Promotion; protection from sensory
injury—burns, trauma; pt compliance with replacement therapy
Anemia of Chronic Disease
 Associated with underproduction of RBCs and decreased RBC
survival

 Causes: Renal failure; advanced liver cirrhosis; chronic

inflammation; malignancy; immunosuppression

 Medical Management:

 Correct underlying disorder

 Erythropoietin Therapy – Epogen, Procrit

 Nursing Management: Care of the debilitated patient – dietary &

medication compliance
 Anemia Caused by Blood

Loss
Acute Blood Loss
 Hemorrhage
 Chronic Blood Loss
 Body maintains its blood volume by slowly increasing plasma volume < RBCs

 Clinical Manifestations:
 Range from fatigue with melena to orthostatic BP changes to shock

 Medical Management:
 Treat underlying cause –
 Blood replacement – packed RBCs
 Supplemental Iron
 Sickle Cell Disease
 Group of inherited autosomal recessive disorders characterized by the presence of
abnormal Hgb in the erythrocyte
 Causes the erythrocyte to stiffen & elongate
 Sickle shape in response to lack of oxygen
 Types:
 Sickle Cell Anemia: most severe – inherited homozygous for hemoglobin S
(HbSS) from both parents
 Sickle Cell Trait: mild - inherited from one parent + one normal

 Sickling Episodes:
 Hypoxemia – triggered by stress, surgery, blood loss, viral or bacterial
infection*(most common), dehydration, acidosis
 Hemolyzed in the spleen
 Initially reversible – then becomes irreversible due to chronic sickling
Introduction to hematological
disorders
1.Leukemia
Definition It is a group of malignant disorder, affecting the
blood and blood –forming tissue of the bone marrow lymph
system and spleen.
A etiology
 Combination of predisposing factors including genetic and
environmental influences.
 Chronic exposure to chemical such as benzene
 Radiation exposure.
 Cytotoxic therapy of breast, lung and testicular cancer.
 Classification of leukaemia

1. 1. Acute lymphatic leukaemia (ALL)

Usually occurs before the age of 14 years peak incidence

between 2-9 years of age, older adult

Pathophysiology : It arising from a single lymphoid stem ce

with impaired maturation and accumulation of the malign
cells in the bone marrow.
.Acute lymphatic leukaemia Cont
Signs and symptoms
Anaemia, bleeding, lymphadenopathy, infection

Clinical Clinical
manifestation manifestation
Fever Generalized
Pallor lymphadenopathy
Bleeding Infection of respiratory
Anorexia tract
Fatigue Anaemia and bleeding
Weakness of mucus membrane
Bone, joint and Ecchymoses
abdominal pain Weight loss
Increase intracranial Hepatomegaly
Acute lymphatic leukaemia
.MCont
anagement
Diagnosis
 Low RBCs count, Hb, Hct, low platelet count ,
low normal or high WBC count.
 Blood smear show immature lymph blasts.
Treatment
Chemotherapeutic agent, it involve three phases

1. Induction: Using vincristine and prednisone.

2. Consolidation: Using modified course of intensive

therapy to eradicate any remaining.
 ...’Acute lymphatic leukaemia Co

Treatment Cont.
 Prophylactic treatment of the CNS , intrathecal
administration and /or craniospinal radiation wi
eradicate leukemic cells.

 Eat diet that contains high in protein, fibres and

 .Acute lymphatic leukaemia Cont
Treatment Cont.
 Avoid infection (hand washing, avoid
crowds),injury

 Take measure to decrease nausea and to

promote appetite, smoking and spicy and hot
foods.

 Maintain oral hygiene.

 Acute Myelogenous Leukaemia
It (AML)
occurs at any age but occurs most often at adolescence and after
age of 55
Pathophysiology
Characterized by the development of immature myeloblasts in the
bone marrow.
Clinical manifestation
Similar to ALL plus sternal tenderness.
Management
Diagnosis
Low RBC, Hb, Hct, low platelet count, low to high WBC count
with myeloblasts.
Acute Myelogenous Leukaemia (AML)
.Cont
Treatment
 Use of cytarabine, 6-thioquanine, and doxorubic
 The same care of client as All, plus give adequate amounts of
fluids(2000 to 3000 ml per day.)
 Instruct client about medication, effects, side effects and
nursing measures
Chronic lymphocytic Leukaemia
(CLL)
The incidence of CLL increases with age and is rare under the
age of 35.It is common in men.
Pathophysiology

 It is characterized by proliferation of small, abnormal , mature

B lymphocytes, often leading to decreased synthesis of
immunoglobulin and depressed antibody response.

 The number of mature lymphocytes in peripheral blood smear

and bone marrow are greatly increased
Chronic lymphocytic Leukaemia
(CLL) Cont
Clinical Manifestation
Usually there is no symptoms.

Chronic fatigue , weakness , anorexia, splenomegaly , lymphadenopathy,

hepatomegaly.
Signs and Symptoms

 Pruritic vesicular skin lesions .

 Anaemia

 Thrombocytopenia.

 The WBC count is elevated to a level between 20,000 to 100,000.

Chronic lymphocytic Leukaemia
(CLL) Cont

Management
I. Persons are treated only when symptoms, particular
anaemia , thrombocytopenia , enlarged lymph nodes and
spleen appear.

II. Chemotherapy agents such as chlorambucil , and the

glucocorticoids.

III. Client and family education is that describe for AML.

Chronic Myelogenous
Leukaemia(CML)
Occurs between 25-60 years of age. Peak 45 year

It is caused by benzene exposure and high doses of radiation.

Clinical Manifestation

 There is no symptoms in disease. The classic symptoms of

chronic types of leukaemia, include:

 Fatigue, weakness, fever, sternal tenderness.

 Weight loss, joint & bone pain.

.Clinical Manifestation Cont

 Massive splenomegaly and increase in sweating.

 The accelerated phase of disease(blastic phase
is characterized by increasing number o
granulocytes in the peripheral blood.
 There is a corresponding anaemia an
thrombocytopenia.
 Key Terms
 Anticoagulant: an agent that prevents the clotting of
blood.
 Examples are EDTA, Citrate and Heparin
 Capillary: small blood vessel that connects arterioles
and venules
 Hematoma: a subcutaneous mass of blood at a
venipuncture site
 Hemoglobin: the oxygen carrying molecule of red
blood cells
 Hemolysis: the breakdown of red blood cells, with the
release of hemoglobin into the plasma or serum.
Cannot use hemolyzed samples in lab tests
 Embolism: a blood clot which is moving through the
body
Questions?