UNDERSTANDING AND

SYSTEMATICALL
COLLECTING DATA
 Objectives
By the end of the lesson, the
learner will be able to;
 Choose an appropriate
quantitative research design
 Describe the sampling
procedure and sample
 Construct an instrument and
establish its validity and
reliability
 Objectives
By the end of the lesson, the
learner will be able to;
 Describe the intervention, if
applicable
 Plan the data analysis using
statistics and hypothesis
testing; and
 Present a research
methodology
 DEFINITION OF
TERMS
Population-an aggregate or a set of all
units/cases (may be people, things, events,
etc.) being studied having at least one
common characteristics, a big group of people
from where you choose the sample
 DEFINITION OF
TERMS
Example: The total number of carabaos in
Barangay X.
All students of KNCHS during the second
semester of SY 2017-2018.
 DEFINITION OF
SAMPLE-“a TERMS
smaller (but hopefully
representative) collection of units from a
population used to determine truths about
that population” (Field, 2005)
 DEFINITION OF
TERMS
- a chosen set of people to represent the
population
-randomly selected subgroup of people or
objects from the overall membership pool of a
define target population
 DEFINITION OF
TERMS
SAMPLING UNIT- term referring to every
individual in the population.

SAMPLE SIZE- the number of

respondents/subjects that you are going to
use in the study
 DEFINITION OF
TERMS
SAMPLING UNIT- term referring to every
individual in the population.

SAMPLE SIZE- the number of

respondents/subjects that you are going to
use in the study
 Factors Affecting Sample
Selection
1. Sample size
-How big should the sample be
- based on other’s previous study on how they
got their sample
-ensure the representativeness or accuracy of
sample size
 Factors Affecting Sample
Selection
2. Sampling Technique
-two types: probability sampling and non-
probability sampling
-bias is one of the causes of sampling errors
(sampling procedure must be accurate)
 Factors Affecting Sample
Selection
3. Heterogeneity of Population
-heterogeneous population is composed of
individuals with
varied abilities
 Factors Affecting Sample
Selection
4. Statistical Techniques
-accuracy of sample depends on how precise
or accurate
your methods are in calculating the numbers
used in
measuring the chosen samples or giving a
certain value to
each of them
 Factors Affecting Sample
Selection
5. Time and Cost
- consider the amount of money you will fork
out for the
materials you will need in getting your sample
-time and effort should also be considered in
choosing your
sample
Sampling

 Refers to the process of systematically

selecting individuals, units, or group to be
analyzed during the conduct of study.
 The reason for selecting the samples
selected about the target population.
Sampling
 Thus, it is the goal in research to make
sure that the samples selected represent
the target population
 Being able to do this will increase the
generalizability of your findings.
Sampling
 There are four ways that you can use to
determine the sample size to your study:
 Heuristics
 Literature review
 Formulas
 Power analysis
Heuristics
 A term normally used in qualitative studies as
a research approach that utilizes
introspection.
 In quantitative research, heuristics refers to
the rule of thumb for the sample size used in a
study.
Using Formulas

2
𝑋 𝑁𝑃 ( 1 − 𝑃 )
𝑠=
𝑑2 ( 𝑁 − 1 )+ 𝑋 2 𝑃 ( 1 − 𝑃 )
where
S= required sample size
= table value of chi-square for 1 degree
of freedom at the desired confidence
level
N=population size
P=population proportion (0.5)
D=the degree of accuracy expressed as
a proportion (0.05)
Let us use this formula in
obtaining the ideal sample
size for a given population.
For instance, the sample for a
population of 105 people
computed as follows:
Solution
Solution

Sample size of 83 participants

Based on the computation above, the idea

sample size for a population of 105 people is 83
Power Analysis
Among the four strategies, power analysis is
considered the most precise. As suggested by
its name, this strategy is founded on the
principle of statistical power.
Statistical Power
It refers to the probability of rejecting a false
null hypothesis, thus suggesting that there is,
indeed, a relationship between the
independent and dependent variables
Effect Size
 Refers to the degree of difference
between the control and treatment
group.
 It indicates the extent of the
relationship between these two
variables.
 The higher the effect size, the
greater the difference between the
control and treatment groups.
Random Sampling
 Also known as probability sampling
 Involves the selection of a group of
participants from the larger population
by chance.
 Through random sampling, the
researcher is expected to obtain
samples that will represent the
population where they are taken.
Random Sampling
 It is a sampling method of choosin
representatives from the population wherei
every sample has an equal chance of bein
selected. Accurate data can be collected usin
random sampling techniques.
 It ensure that bias is not introduced regardin
who is included in the survey.
 Sampling
 Is the process or technique of selecting
a representative sample from the entire
population.
Why sample?
 It is impossible to check physically all
the items in the population.
 It is costly if all items in the population
are studies
Why sample?
 It is time-consuming to contact
everybody in the population.
 Some tests are destructive in nature, so
samples must be used instead of the
population.
YPES OF SAMPLE
Probability (Random) Samples
Simple random sample
Systematic random sample
Stratified random sample
Multistage sample
Multiphase sample
Cluster sample
Non-Probability Samples
Convenience sample
Purposive sample
Quota
 ti o
t ra
l u s
lI n
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
 Is a sampling technique where every
member of the population has an equal
chance of being chosen to be part of
the sample.
 Using the lottery method or Table of
Random Numbers (Open on page 408
for the table)
 Lottery Method
 Using the lottery method is one of the
oldest ways and is a mechanical
example of random sampling. In this
method, the researcher gives each
member of the population a number.
Researchers draw numbers from the
box randomly to choose samples.
Slovin’s Formula

Where

For the margin error, use 5% or 0.05

dvantages of simple random sampling
 It is a fair method of sampling, and if
applied appropriately, it helps to reduce
any bias involved compared to any
other sampling method involved.
 Since it involves a large sample frame,
it is usually easy to pick a smaller
sample size from the existing larger
population.
dvantages of simple random sampling
 The person conducting the research
doesn’t need to have prior knowledge
of the data he/ she is collecting. One
can ask a question to gather the
researcher need not be a subject
expert.
Advantages of simple random sampling

 This sampling method is a

fundamental method of collecting
the data. You don’t need any
technical knowledge. You only
require essential listening and
recording skills.
dvantages of simple random sampling
 Since the population size is vast in this
type of sampling method, there is no
restriction on the sample size that the
researcher needs to create. From a
larger population, you can get a small
sample quite quickly.
 The data collected through this
sampling method is well informed; more
the samples better is the quality of the
data.
Random Numbers

 The use of random numbers is an

alternative method that also involves
numbering the population. The use of a
number table similar to the one below
can help with this sampling technique.
ample 1: Simple Random Sampling
 Adrianne runs a small company
with 10 employees. He decides to pick
a simple random sample
of 3 employees to go on a business
trip. He numbers them 0-9 and uses
the random digit table printed below to
select the sample.

Note: Follow the steps in simple random

sampling.
ample 1: Simple Random Sampling
 There are 90 students in a lunch
period, and 5 of them will be selected
at random for cleaning duty every
week. Each student receives a
number 01-90 and the school uses a
random digit table to select a simple
random sample of 5 students.

Note: Follow the steps in simple random

sampling.
 SYSTEMATIC
SAMPLING
Is a random sampling technique in
which a list of elements of the
population is used as a sampling
frame and the elements to be
included in the desired sample are
selected by skipping through the
list at regular intervals.
The value of is the sampling interval

Where
 Advantage of
systematic random
sampling
Simpler to select one

every 𝑘𝑡ℎ member of the

random number and

list, than to select as many

as sample size.
It gives good spread right
across the population.
 Example 1: Systematic Random
Sampling
A researcher wants to select 35 people
from a population of 150. How is she
going to do it by using the systematic
sampling technique.
 Example 1: Systematic Random
Step 1. Prepare aSampling
sampling frame by randomly
arranging 150 people.
Step 2. Assign each 150 people a number from 1 to
150.
Step 3. Use the formula
Example 1: Systematic Random
Sampling
Step 4. Select a number from the whole number
between 0 and randomly.
Step 5. Assuming the number randomly selected is
3.
Step 6. Select every 4 person from the sampling
th

frame starting from the third person.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 etc.
 STRATIFIED
SAMPLING
Is a random sampling
technique in which the
population is first divided
into strata and then
samples are randomly
selected separately from
each stratum.
 STRATIFIED SAMPLING
 Where population embraces a number
of distinct categories, the frame can be
organized into separate "strata." Each
stratum is then sampled as an
independent sub-population, out of
which individual elements can be
randomly selected.
 Every unit in a stratum has same
chance of being selected.
 STRATIFIED SAMPLING

 Using same sampling fraction for all

strata ensures proportionate
representation in the sample.
 Adequate representation of minority
subgroups of interest can be ensured by
stratification & varying sampling
fraction between strata as required.
 STRATIFIED SAMPLING
 -used by making subdivisions of the
total population into smaller groups
to represent the sample of the study;
Sometimes called "proportional"
random sampling different strata
(groups) in the population are
defined and each member of the
stratum is listed
 STRATIFIED SAMPLING

 this type of sampling assures

adequate cases for sub-group
analysis
 A stratum is a subset of the
population that share at least one
common characteristic; such as
males and females
Example 1: Stratified Random Sampling
The committee of a school of 10,000
students wishes to assess any reaction
to the reintroduction of Reserved
Officer Training course (ROTC) to the
college curriculum from courses like
maritime courses and criminology
courses. To ensure a representative
sample of students from first year and
second year levels, the committee
uses the stratified technique.
Example 2: Stratified Random Sampling
Gin wants to interview 500 students
in SFA to determine their insights on
the new school guidelines. How are
you going to choose your sample by
using stratified sampling if there are
2,100 students in grade 7; 1,800 in
grade 8; 1,890 in grade 9; 2,000 in
grade 10; 182 in grade 11; 258 in
grade 12.
Solution
Population Number of Sample
students per
stratum
Grade 7 2,100 127.582
Grade 8 1,800 109.356109
Grade 9 1,890 114.823115
Grade 10 2,000 121.507122
Grade 11 182 11.05711
Grade 12 258 15.67416
Total 8,230 499.999500
In solving the sample use the formula

𝑛=𝑥 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

the value of 𝑛. If this happens, round up one of the

Note: The computation will result to one less than

data to the next integer. In this problem 𝑛=500. If

the sum of all the samples per year level is 499
instead of 500, then round it up one of the data is
not a whole number to the next integer.
CLUSTER OR AREA
Is a random
SAMPLING
sampling technique
in which the entire
population is broken
into small groups, or
clusters, and then,
some of the clusters
are randomly
selected.
CLUSTER OR AREA
SAMPLING
a group of sampling
units close to each
other i.e. crowding
together in the same
area or
neighborhood
Multistage sampling
-divides large
populations into
stages to make
the sampling
process more
practical.
Multistage sampling
-A combination of
stratified sampling
or cluster sampling
and simple
random sampling is
usually used.
 2.1: CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING
Directions: Read the
following situations inside
the box and then answer
the Question/s followed.
Write the correct answers
on the space provided.
Instruments in Quantitative
Research
 Instruments are tools
used to gather data for a
particular research topic..
Instruments in Quantitative
Research
 Performance-based or
paper-and-pencil,
questionnaires,
interviews, and
observations.
Instruments in Quantitative
Research

 The last two

instruments are
used more often in
qualitative
research.
 Instruments in Quantitative
Research
 However, they can also
be employed in
quantitative studies as
long as the required
responses or analyzed
data are numerical in
nature.
 Instruments in Quantitative
Research
 When using
instruments that are
prone to subjectivity
(e.g., observation,
interview, assessment
performance tasks)
 Inter-coder or inter-rater

Refers to the level

of concurrence
between the score
given by two or
more raters.
Inter-coder or inter-rater
Typically, you consider
a number of aspects in
describing your
instruments. These
include the following:
1. The actual instrument
used
2. The purpose of the
instrument
3. The developer of the
instrument (an
institution or other
researchers)
4. The number of items
or sections in the
instrument
5. The response format
used (multiple choice,
yes or no)
6. The scoring for the
responses
7. The reliability and
validity of the study.
 Adopting an instrument
 This means that you will
utilize an instrument that
has been used in well-
known institutions or
reputable studies and
publications.
 Adopting an instrument
 Adopting an instrument
means that you do not have
to spend time establishing its
validity and reliability since
they have already been
tested by their developers
and other researchers.
 Adopting an instrument

When adopting an
instrument, the researcher
must include the following in
the instrument description:
 Adapting an instrument

an instrument requires more

changes than adopting an
instrument. In this situation, the
researcher follows the general
format of another instrument but
 Adapting an instrument

adds items, removes items, and/or

changes the content of each item.
When adapting an instrument, the
researcher should report the same
information in the Instruments
 Adapting an instrument

section as when adopting the

instrument, but should also include
the following in the instrument
description:
 Adapting an instrument

• What changes were made to the

instrument?
• Why were they changed?
Instrument Validity
Whether your instrument
is adopted, modified, or
self-created it is
necessary to ensure its
validity and reliability.
Who developed the
instrument
Who validated the
instrument
What are the other
studies that have used
Validity
Refers to the degree to
which an instrument
measures what it is
supposed to measure.
Validity
 Validity has several types namely:
 Face validity
 Content validity
 Construct validity
 Concurrent validity
 Predictive validity
Face Validity
 An instrument has face validity
when it appears to measure the
variables being studied.
 Hence, checking for face validity is
a subjective process.
 It does not ensure that the
instrument has an actual validity
Content Validity
 Refers to the degree to which an
instrument covers a
representative sample (or specific
elements) of the variable to be
measured in your field of study.
Content Validity
 Similar to face validity, assessing
content validity is a subjective
process which is done with the
help of a list os specifications.
This list of specifications is
provided by experts in your field
of study.
Construct Validity

 It is the degree to which an

instrument measures the variables
being studied as a whole. Thus,
the instrument is able to detect
what should exist theoretically.
Construct Validity
 Often intangible or abstract
variable such as personality,
intelligence, or moods
Construct Validity
 If your instrument cannot detect
this intangible construct, it is
considered invalid
Criterion Validity
 Refers to the degree that an
instrument predicts the
characteristics of a variable in a
certain way.
 This means that the instrument
produces results similar to those of
another instrument in measuring a
certain variable.
Concurrent Validity
 When it is able to predict results
similar to those of a test already
validated in the past.
Predictive Validity
 When it produces results similar to
those of another instrument that
will employed in the future.
Instrument Reliability
 Refers to the consistency
of the measures of an
instrument.
 Aspect involved in the
accuracy of
measurement.
The different attributes of
reliability are described in
Table 1.
Test-retest Reliability
 It is achieved by administering an
instrument twice to the same group
of participants an then computing
the consistency of scores
 It is often ideal to conduct test-
retest after a short period of time
(i.e. two weeks)
Test-retest Reliability
 In order to record a higher
correlation between the variables
tested in the study.
Equivalent Forms Reliability
 It is measured by administering two
tests identical in all aspects except
the wording of items. In short, the
two tests have the same coverage,
difficulty level, test type, and
format. An example of a procedure
involving
Equivalent Forms Reliability
 Equivalent forms reliability is
administering a pre-test and a post-
test.
 (Homogeneity)Internal Consistency
Reliability
 Is a measure of how well the items
in two instruments measure the
same construct, There are three
ways of measuring the internal
consistency reliability.
Split half coefficient (split-half reliability
 Obtained by administering a single
instrument aimed at measuring
only one construct. However, upon
computing the results, the items of
the instrument are divided ( or
“split”) into two sets
Split half coefficient (split-half reliability
 The results for these two sets are
then compared with each other.
Cronbach’s Alpha
 Measures reliability with respect to
each item and construct being
examined by the instrument.
Inter-rater reliability
 Measures the consistency of scores
assigned by two or more raters on a
certain set of results.
Kappa coefficient
 Is one of the most popular
statistical tools in measuring inter-
rater reliability.
 The higher the value of kappa
coefficient, the more reliable the
instrument is. A coefficient value of
at least 0.70 indicates that the
instrument is reliable.
 Ways to improve
Validity and Reliability
1. Define your goals and
objectives clearly.
2. Match your instrument to
your goals and objectives.
Additionally, have the test
reviewed by others to obtain
feedback from an external
party who is less invested in
the instrument.
3. Assess for troublesome
wording, or other technical
errors.
4. Compare your instrument
with other measures, or data
that may be available.
QUIZ
11/08/2023
__________1. It is the process of getting
information from a proper subset of
population.

__________2. It is an aggregate or a set

of all units/cases (may be people,
things, events, etc.) being studied
having at least one common
characteristics.
__________3. The population to be
studied/ to which the investigator
wants to generalize his results.

__________4. It is a list/map from

which the potential respondents are
drawn.
__________5. A chosen set of people
to represent the population.

__________6. A term referring to every

individual in the population.
__________7. It enables investigators to
specify the size of the sample that they
will need if they want to obtain degree
of certainty that the sample size would
definitely represent the whole.
__________8. It is the most basic and
commonly-used sampling technique in
descriptive research.
__________9. It is a subset of the
population that share at least one
common characteristic such as males
and females.

_________10. It consists of the selection

of each nth term from a list of
population.
1. Sampling is about ______ a sample
from a population.
A. adding
B. including
C. predicting
D. selecting
2. A sample frame is a useful tool to
______ a target population.
A. approximate
B. assess
C. assimilate
D. attach
3. Non-probability sampling is based on
______ selection from a target population
A. arbitrary
B. random
C. systematic
D. transfer
4. The non-probability sampling which
applies the referral type of identifying
members of the sample is
______________.
A. Convenience Sampling
B. Snowball Sampling
C. Purposive Sampling
D. Quota Sampling
5. What is TRUE about stratified
sampling
A. Type of sampling method in which
the total population is divided
into smaller groups or strata
B. The population is divided into
various subgroups.
C. It is part of sampling
D. All of the above
Thank You!