Electrical Machines II

Course Name : Electrical Machines – II

Course Code: EEN 4002

Credits : 4

Scheme LTP : 3-0-2

Course Instructor – Dr. Puneet Chawla

 SYLLABUS

Three Phase Induction Machines

General construction features, rotating field theory, per phase and
approximate equivalent circuit, production of torque, torque speed
characteristics, max power and max torque criterion, maximum efficiency
criterion, no load and blocked rotor test, circle diagram. Starting: rotor
rheostat starter, reduced voltage starting, star delta starting. Deep bar and
double cage rotor. Speed control: pole changing, line voltage control, line
frequency control, rotor resistance control, injection of emf in the rotor
circuit. Braking: regenerative, plugging, dynamic braking. Physical
phenomenon: time and space harmonics, cogging, crawling, locking, noise,
voltage ripples, induction generator. Introduction to DFIG

Single Phase Induction Motors

Double revolving field theory, analysis of single-phase induction motor,
equivalent circuit diagram, torque speed characteristics, types of single-
phase
o induction machines
‹#›
 SYLLABUS
Synchronous Generators
Constructional features, armature windings, pitch and distribution factor, winding
connections, induced emf equation, equivalent circuit, synchronous and leakage
reactance, cylindrical rotor machine performance with constant synchronous reactance,
armature reaction, generator external characteristics and voltage regulation, generator
excitation for constant voltage, direct and quadrature axis synchronous reactance,
unsaturated and saturated synchronous reactance, open circuit and short circuit
characteristics. Potier triangle, calculation of saturated synchronous reactance from open
circuit saturation curve, determination of direct and quadrature axis synchronous
reactance. Efficiency, losses in synchronous generator, power angle, transient and sub-
transient reactance, determination of transient, sub-transient reactance, parallel operation
of synchronous generators, synchronizing power, negative and zero sequence
impedances of synchronous generator
Synchronous Motors
Construction and operation of synchronous motor, V-curves and inverted V-curves,
effects of armature reaction, vector diagrams, effect of change in load and field
excitation, vector diagram for salient pole synchronous motor, calculation of field
current and efficiency. Relation between power developed and power angle,
o
electromagnetic power in salient and cylindrical rotor motor, condition for maximum
‹#›
power, maximum power versus power angle, field excitation versus power angle,
hunting, damping, methods of starting of synchronous motor, power factor correction
using synchronous condensers, hunting
 Suggested Books

Sr.No. Name of Book/Authors/Publisher Year of Publication/ Reprint

1. Electric Machines by D P Kothari and I J Nagrath, Tata Mcgraw Hill

Education Private Limited 2017
2. Alternating Current Machines by M.G Say, Pitman publishing Ltd 1976
3. Electric Machinery by A.E. Fitzgerald, Charles Kingsley, Jr. and Stephen D.
Umans, Tata 2013 McGraw-Hill
4. Electrical Machinery by P S Bhimbra, 7th Edition, Khanna Publishers 2011
5. The Performance and Design of Direct Current Machines by Albert E
Clayton & N N Hancock, 1974 CBS publishers and distributors
6. Theory and Performance of Electric Machines By J. B Gupta Publisher:
Kataria,S. K., & Sons
7. Electrical Machinery and Transformer, Irving L. Kosow , 2nd Edition, 1991,
Prentice Hall 1991
8. Electric
o Machinery, P.K. Mukherjee and S. Chakravorti, 2nd Edition, D
‹#›
 ELECTRICAL MACHINES

Static Machines Rotating Machines

Transformer Motor
Classification of electric machines
 Classification of AC machines
Classification of electric Classification of
electric machines machines
AC Machines

Asynchronous Machines
Synchronous Machines
(Induction Machine)

Induction Induction
Synchronous Synchronous
Generator Motor
Generator Motor
Due to lack of a
A primary Used as motors as Most widely
separate field
source of well as power factor used electrical
excitation, these
electrical compensators motors in both
machines are
energy (synchronous domestic and
rarely used as
condensers) industrial
generators.
applications
 Q
 Electromagnetic Induction Phenomena was discovered by
Faraday
 The Experiment:

 Michael Faraday summed up conclusions of this experiments regarding

electro-magnetic induction into two laws, known as Faraday’s laws of
electro-magnetic induction.

‹#›
 What happens when a conductor moves in a magnetic field?
When flux linking with a conductor (or coil) changes, an emf is induced in it.
The emf produced due to motion between the conductor and the magnetic field
is called induced emf.

 What are the ways in which flux linkages can change?

 This change in flux linkages can be obtained in the following two ways:
(i) By either moving the conductor and keeping the magnetic field system stationary
or moving the magnetic field system and keeping the conductor stationary in such a way
that conductor cuts across the magnetic field (as in case of DC and AC generators).
o The emf induced in this way is called dynamically induced emf

(ii) By changing the flux linking with the coil (or conductor) without moving either coil or
field system. However, the change of flux produced by the field system linking with the coil is
‹#›
obtained by changing the current in the field system (solenoid), as in transformers.
o The emf induced in this way is called statically induced emf
 This law states that “The magnitude of induced emf in a coil is directly
proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages.
 The flux linkages is the product of number of turns and the flux
associated with the coil.

‹#›
 The direction of induced emf and hence current in a
conductor or coil can be determined by either of the
following two methods
 Fleming’s Right Hand Rule:
“Stretch, first finger, second finger, and thumb of your right hand
mutually perpendicular to each other. If first finger indicates the Right Hand
direction of magnetic field, thumb indicates the direction of
motion of conductor then second finger will indicate the direction
of induced emf in the conductor.”
 Apply Lenz’s Law:
Electro-magnetically induced emf and hence current flows in a coil
or circuit in such a direction that the magnetic field set up by it,
always opposes the very cause which produces it.
6

Therefore minus sign is appended on RHS ‹#›

of the emf expression.
In self inductance, the change in the strength of current in the coil is
opposed by the coil itself by inducing an e.m.f.
In mutual inductance out of the two coils one coil opposes change in
the strength of the current flowing in the other coil.
‹#›
 Rotating Machines

Generator
Motor
Principle of working of Principle of working of
electric motor – electric generator
An electric motor works on the principle Electric generator works on the
that when an electric current is passed principle of electromagnetic induction
through a conductor placed normally that is when a conductor moves in a
in a magnetic field, a force acts on the
magnetic field an emf is induced
conductor as a result of which the
conductor begins to move and across the conductor.
mechanical energy is obtained.
Force exerted on a conductor in a magnetic field
 Basic components of a Generator and a Motor

 Electromagnet - a coil is wound on a piece of

magnetic material. N

Energized by connecting a source supply

across the coil. N

When the current flows through the coil,

lines of force are established.
 In permanent magnet the magnetic polarities
M are
permanently fixed.
 In an electromagnet the position of the north and the
south poles depends upon the direction of current S
flowing through the coil.

 By applying the thumb or crock screw rule , the

direction of flux around a current carrying coil can be
found.
Various Ways of making Electromagnet
Various Ways of making Electromagnet
Various Ways of making Electromagnet
Stator of a DC machine
Various Ways of making Electromagnet
Various Ways of making Electromagnet
Rotor of a DC machine
Windings in electrical machines
 Windings in electrical machines
Distinction can be made between different types of windings
characterized by the nature of the current they carry.

 If the current serves the purpose of providing a magnetic field

and is independent of the load (it is called a magnetizing, or
excitation current), the winding is termed a field winding.
(Usually DC and are of relatively low power, since their only
purpose is to magnetize the core).
Field winding consumes a small percentage (0.5% to 2%) of the
rated load power

 However, if the winding carries only the load current, it is

called an armature winding

In DC and AC synchronous machines, separate windings exist to

carry field and armature currents.
Representation of a rotating machine
Torque developed due to non alignment of two magnets
Torque due to non alignment of two magnetic fields
Rotation due to non alignment of two magnets
Rotation due to non alignment of two magnets
Conductor experiences a torque when placed in a magnetic field
Representation of a rotating machine
Representation of a rotating machine
Representation of a rotating machine
Representation of a rotating machine
Flux in a 2 pole machine of a rotating machine
Flux in a 4 pole machine
 COMMON TERMS
Some of the terms common to armature windings are described
below:
1. Conductor - A length of wire which takes active part in the
energy conversion process is a called a conductor.
2. Turn - One turn consists of two conductors.
3. Coil - One coil may consist of any number of turns.
4. Coil side- One coil with any number of turns has two coil-sides.
5. Pole pitch- A pole pitch is defined as the peripheral distance
between identical points on two adjacent poles.
Pole pitch is always equal to 180 degrees electrical.
6. Coil–span or coil-pitch-
The distance between the two coil-sides of a coil is called
coil- span or coil-pitch.
It is usually measured in terms of teeth, slots or electrical
degrees.
POLE – PITCH
It is the distance between the centers of pole
faces of two adjacent poles is called pole pitch.

Pole pitch = 1800 Electrical

COIL :
A coil consists of two coil sides.
Placed in two separate slots

SLOT PITCH:
It is the phase angle between two adjustment slots

COIL SPAN OR COIL PITCH

It is the distance between two coil sides of a coil
ELEMENTS OF AN ARMATURE
WINDINGS
A winding – several coils connected in series
 ELEMENTS OF AN ARMATURE
WINDINGS
The angle between centers of adjacent poles is 180 o (electrical)

180
= 90o

360o electrical
N
= 180o mech

S S

N
 TURNS IN A COIL
The number of conductors (C) in any coil-side is equal to the
number of turns (N) in that coil
Single turn and Multi turn coils
Full pitched and Short pitched coils
 Frequency and Synchronous speed
• The frequency of the generated voltage of an alternator depends
upon the number of field poles and the speed at which the field
poles are rotated.
• One complete cycle of the voltage being generated in an
armature coil when a pair of field poles i.e. one north pole and
one south pole passes over the coil.
• Let,
𝑃 = Number of rotor field poles
𝑁 = Speed of rotor or field poles in RPM
𝑓 = Frequency of the generated voltage in Hz
• In one revolution of the rotor, an armature coil is cut by (P/2)
north poles and (P/2) south poles.
• Since one cycle of the voltage is generated in the armature coil
when a pair of field poles passes over the coil.
 Frequency and Synchronous speed
• Thus, the number of cycles generated in one revolution of the
rotor will be equal to the number of pairs of poles
• Number of cycles / revolution = No of pole pairs = P/2
• Number of revolution/second = N/60
• Number of cycles /second =P/2 x N/60

• The frequency is defined as the number of cycles per seconds.

f = PN/120

• The synchronous speed is defined as the speed at which the

rotating magnetic field of an electric machine rotates. It is
denoted by Ns

https://youtu.be/YYQayMrK4Fo
 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
• Synchronous generators or alternators are used to convert
mechanical power derived from steam, gas, or hydraulic-turbine
to ac electric power
• Synchronous generators are the primary source of electrical
energy we consume today.
• Large ac power networks rely almost exclusively on
synchronous generators
• Synchronous motors are built in large units as compared to
induction motors (Induction motors are cheaper for smaller
ratings) and used for constant speed industrial drives.
• There is a synchronous link between rotor and stator fields in a
synchronous machine..
• There is a fixed relation ship between rotor speed and frequency
of emfs and currents on the stator.
POLYPHASE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

In 2013, India's five mainland

regional grids were connected
created a nationwide
synchronous power grid.
The five power grids include
Northern Region, Eastern
Region, Western Region,
Northeastern Region, and
Southern Region grids
• Synchronous generators
work in parallel with the
interconnected system.
• Frequency and voltage are
constant.
 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
Synchronous machines are doubly excited
machines

• Field Winding - DC excited

• 3-Phase Armature winding

According to the arrangement of the field and

armature windings, synchronous machines may have
(a) Stationary Armature - Rotating Field (Above 5 kVA)

(b) Stationary Field – Rotating Armature (Below 5 kVA)

CONSTRUCTION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

ROTOR:
There are two types of rotor

i) Salient Pole {Projected Poles}

ii) Cylindrical Rotor

Non - Salient Pole type {Non – Projected Poles}
Elementary synchronous generator
A salient-pole 2-pole rotor
CONSTRUCTION OF ALTERNATOR
Stationary Armature - Rotating Field
 CONSTRUCTION OF ALTERNATOR
Stationary Armature - Rotating Field

An alternator has 3 phase winding on the stator and

DC field winding on the rotor.

STATOR
• Stationary part of the machine.
• It is built up of Sheet-Steel
Lamination Core (Stampings)
with slots to hold the armature
Conductor
CONSTRUCTION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
CONSTRUCTION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
CONSTRUCTION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
 TYPES of SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
Two types:
1-Cylindirical rotor: High speed, fuel or gas fired
power p plants
n p
fe   n
2 60 120
To produce 50 Hz electricity
p=2, n=3000 rpm
p=4, n=1500 rpm

lient-pole rotor: Low speed, hydroelectric power plan

To produce 50 Hz electricity
p=12, n=500 rpm
p=24, n=250 rpm
Cylindrical rotor Synchronous Generator
Smooth cylindrical rotor or TURBO ALTERNATOR
Used in high speed alternators driven by steam turbines 1000 RPM to 3000 RPM.).
Features

• Smaller diameter and larger axial length compared to salient pole type machines,
of the same rating.
• Less Windage loss.
• Uniform air-gap
• Speed 1000 RPM to 3000 RPM..
• Better Balancing
• Noiseless Operation
• Flux distribution nearly sine wave
Frequency 50 Hz

Ns = 120 F / P

Poles 2 4 6
Speed 3000 1500 1000
 Cylindrical-Rotor Synchronous Generator
TURBOALTERNATORS

Turbine D» 1
m

L » 10 m
Steam d-axis
Stator winding

• Direct-conductor cooling (using N

Uniform air-gap
hydrogen or water as coolant)
Stator
• Rating up to 2000 MVA
q-axis Rotor winding

Rotor

Turbogenerator
Cylindrical-Rotor Synchronous Generator

 Stator

 Cylindrical rotor
Salient-Pole Synchronous Generator ( Hydrogenator)
1. Most hydraulic turbines have to turn at low speeds
(between 50 Rev/min - 500 r/min)
2. A large number of poles are required on the rotor
d-axis

N Non-uniform
air-gap
D » 10 m

d-axis S S

Turbine
N
Hydro (water)

Hydrogenator

Generators in Bhakra hydro station (100 MVA, 90 MW, 11 kV,

0.9 pf, 3 phase, 50 Hz, 166.4 RPM, 36 Poles )
Salient Pole Synchronous Generator
• Poles are mounted on the larger
circular frame.
• Made up of Thick Steel Laminations.
• Field Winding are connected in
series.
• Ends of the field winding are
connected to the DC Supply through
Slip Rings
Features
• Large Diameter and short Axial
Length
• Poles are Laminated to reduce Eddy
Current Losses
• Air Gap not uniform
• Employed for Low and Medium Speed
• 120 RMP to 500 RPM
• (Diesel & Hydraulic Turbines)

This cannot be used for Large speed

Salient-Pole Synchronous Generator

Stator

le ro to r
n t -p o
Salie
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

If Field current
Advantages of Stationary armature - Rotating field
Armature winding on stator and Field winding on rotor
• It is easy to insulate the stationary armature winding.
• Stator winding is not subjected to centrifugal forces.
• Stator winding (stator) voltage rating can be increased.
• Sparking at brushes is completely avoided.
• Perfect mechanical balance is obtained on stator winding.
• It is easy to insulate slip-rings that are on dc (low rating).
• The rotor weight is less compared to the stator weight.
• The heavy bearings are not required since the rotor is lightweight.
DAMPER WINDING

• Pole faces are provided with damper winding

• Damping out any oscillation that might be caused by sudden changes in

the load on the rotor when in synchronism. (preventing Hunting)

• Copper Bars are placed in slots on pole shoes and short-circuited at

both ends by heavy copper rings
PRICIPLE OF OPERATION - SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
How does a synchronous generator work?

1-Apply DC current to rotor

winding (field winding)

2- Rotate the shaft (rotor) with

constant speed.

3- Rotor magnetic field will

create flux linkages in stator
coils and as a result voltage will
be produced because of
Faraday’s Law.
ARMATURE WINDING

• 3 Phase alternator carry 3 sets of winding arranged in slots

• Open circuited
• 6 terminals
• Can be connected in Star
or Delta

Armature Winding Classification

1. Single Layer and Double Layer Winding
2. Full Pitch and Short Pitch Winding
3. Concentrated and Distributed Winding
 COMMON TERMS
Some of the terms common to armature windings are described
below:
1. Conductor - A length of wire which takes active part in the
energy conversion process is a called a conductor.
2. Turn - One turn consists of two conductors.
3. Coil - One coil may consist of any number of turns.
4. Coil side- One coil with any number of turns has two coil-sides.
5. Pole pitch- A pole pitch is defined as the peripheral distance
between identical points on two adjacent poles.
Pole pitch is always equal to 180 degrees electrical.
6. Coil–span or coil-pitch-
The distance between the two coil-sides of a coil is called
coil- span or coil-pitch.
It is usually measured in terms of teeth, slots or electrical
degrees.
POLE – PITCH
It is the distance between the centers of pole
faces of two adjacent poles is called pole pitch.

Pole pitch = 1800 Electrical

COIL :
A coil consists of two coil sides.
Placed in two separate slots

SLOT PITCH:
It is the phase angle between two adjacent slots

COIL SPAN OR COIL PITCH

It is the distance between two coil sides of a coil
ELEMENTS OF AN ARMATURE
WINDINGS
A winding – several coils connected in series
 ELEMENTS OF AN ARMATURE
WINDINGS
The angle between centers of adjacent poles is 180 o (electrical)

180
= 90o

360o electrical
N
= 180o mech

S S

N
 TURNS IN A COIL
The number of conductors (C) in any coil-side is equal to the
number of turns (N) in that coil
Single turn and Multi turn coils
Full pitched and Short pitched coils
 Single Layer and Double Layer Winding
Single- layer winding

• One coil-side occupies the total slot area

• Used only in small ac machines

Double- layer winding

• Coil-sides in two layers

• Double-layer winding is more commonly

used above about 5kW machines
The advantages of double-layer winding over single layer winding:
a. Easier to manufacture and lower cost of the coils
b. Fractional-slot winding can be used
c. Chorded-winding is possible
d. Lower-leakage reactance and therefore , better performance of the machine
e. Better emf waveform in case of generators
 1.SINGLE LAYER WINDING

• Fig (a) shows an

arrangement for a single
layer winding.
• In this type of winding
arrangement one coil side of
a coil occupies the whole of
the slot. (a)
• Single layer windings are not
used for machine having
commutator. Coil
• Single layer winding allow side

the use of semi-closed and

closed types of slots.
Semi-closed Open slot
slot
 2.DOUBLE LAYER WINDING
• Double layer winding - identical coils with
one coil side of each coil lying in top half
of the slot and the other coil side in
bottom half of another slot exactly or
approximately one pole pitch. Fig (a)
– Each layer may contain more than
one coil side in case large numbers
of coils are required
– Slot contains even number (may be
2,4,6 etc.) of coil-sides in two layers (a)
– Figure (c) shows the arrangement
where there are 8 coil sides per slot.
– Double-layer winding is more
Coil
common above about 5kW machines Top coil side sides Top
(top layer)
– Open slots are frequently used to layer

house double layer windings.

Bottom
Bottom coil side layer
(Bottom layer)

(b) (c)
 Full Pitch and Short Pitch Winding
Full Pitch Winding

If the coil span is equal to pole pitch then the winding is called Full Pitch Winding

Coil Span = Pole Pitch

e1 V e2 V

Short Pitch Winding

If the coil span is less than Pole

Pitch it is called Short pitch
winding
e2 V

e1 V e2 V
 Full pitched and Short pitched winding
• With positive direction of coil-side emfs marked in opposite direction, the
coil emf is the phasor sum of coil-side emfs, i.e. Ec =Ea+Ea’

• In the case of a full-pitch coil Ea’ and Ea are in phase

(they are 180 degrees apart but their positive direction are marked oppositely)
so that
Ec = 2 Ea

Emf induced in a full –pitched coil.

Full pitched and Short pitched winding
In a coil short-pitched by an angle𝜃 𝑠𝑝, Ea’ will lead (or lag)
Ea by the angle depending upon direction of rotation. The
flux linking the coil and therefore the coil emf reduces .

Advantages of Short Chorded winding or Chorded Pitch Winding

1. Saving in Copper
2. They improve the waveform of generated EMF i.e. generated EMF can
be made to approximate to a sine wave more easily and the distorting
harmonics can be reduced .
PITCH FACTOR OR COIL SPAN FACTOR OR SHORT CHORDED FACTOR
Kp OR Kc
Pitch factor is defined as the ratio EMF induced in the Short
pitch winding to the EMF induced in the full pitch winding

α =Angle of short pitching Vector Sum EMF = AB

= AC + CB
Kp = AC + CB
2 AD
B

C α/2 Ea’ AD = BD

α/2 α
A
Ea D Ea’
2E
Kp = Cos (α / 2)
 DISTRIBUTED WINDING
• The flux/pole is limited by the machine dimensions and the peak flux density which
cannot exceed a specified value dictated by saturation characteristic of iron.
• For inducing an emf of an appropriate value in a practical machine ,a large number of
coil turns are needed
• It is not possible to accommodate all these in a single slot-pair.
• With one coil/pole pair/phase, i.e. one slot/pole/phase, the periphery of the stator is far
from being fully utilized.
• So there are Large no. of slots/pole/phase on the stator periphery.

• The winding of phase a in the machine(in next slide) has three coils which are placed
in three slot- pairs distributed in space .
• The total angle occupied by the phase winding along the armature periphery is called
the phase spread.
• Such a winding is referred to as the distributed winding.
• Since the machine is always wound with identical coils, the sinusoidal emfs induced
in coils have the same rms value (E ) but have a progressive time phase difference
because coil are uniformly distributed in space.
DISTRIBUTED WINDING
3-Phase synchronous machine
 Phase spread of 1200 for Phase sequence of RBY

Slot Pitch : The angular displacement between any two adjacent slots in electrical degree
Slot Pitch (β) = 180
(No. of slots / Pole)
= 1800/6 OR 3600/12 =300 electrical
Phase spread - For 1200 ,No. of slots allotted to one phase will be 4 ( 300 X 4 slots)
 Phase spread 0f 600 for Phase sequence of RBY

Slots/pole/phase = 12/3x2
Angular slot pitch 360/12=300

• Conductor 1 being cut by maximum flux,emf induced is maximum-Em. This emf

can be represented by the phasor whose projection on vertical axis is equal to rms
value of emf,E1, generated in conductor. Conductor 2 is being cut by a flux less
than max. flux.Accordingly emf generated is indicated by phasor E 2,whose
vertical component E2Cos β will be rms value of emf generated in conductor 2.
 Distributed winding for a Phase spread of 600
Phase sequence RBY

• The total induced emf in a concentrated winding is the arithmetic sum of the emfs from
all coils of that phase under one pole while in distributed winding total emf will be the
phasor sum of of emfs induced in coils of that phase.
• The projection of phasor on any vertical axis gives the rms value of the alternating voltage
DISTRIBUTED WINDING
Anglular slot pitch =β
Phase spread =mβ
 DISTRIBUTED WINDING

• Consider a 2-pole, 3-phase machine synchronous generator with

distributed windings with 3 slots/pole /phase(m).
• The angle between adjacent slots is γ
• The winding of phase a in this machine has three coils (11′, 22′ and
33′) which are placed in three slot-pairs distributed in space with
an angular separation .
• The total angle σ = mγ occupied by the phase winding along the
armature periphery is called the phase spread.
• Such a winding is referred to as the distributed winding.
• Since the machine is always wound with identical coils, the
sinusoidal emfs induced in coils 11′, 22′ and 33′ have the same rms
value (E) but have a progressive time phase difference of γ
because these coils are uniformly distributed in space.
 DISTRIBUTION FACTOR OR BREATH FACTOR (Kd)

• These coils are series connected to yield

the phase voltage Ea which is the phasor
sum of the coil emf’s and is equal to AD.

• The coil emf phasors form the sides of a

regular polygon, the centre of whose
circumscribing circle.

• Let us represent the emfs induced in

different coils of one phase under one pole
as AB, BC, CD, and so on.

• Induced emfs are equal in magnitude (say

each equal E) and differ in phase (say β )
from each other.
• If we draw bisectors on AB, BC, CD, …they
would meet at common point O.
 B C
e2 β
r
x e1 e3
m(β/2)

A E D
β β β/2
β/2
r β
β/2 Vector Sum
mβ
O
DISTRIBUTION FACTOR OR BREATH FACTOR (Kd)
Arithmetic Sum of EMF = m(AB )
AB = AX + XB
= r Sin (β/2) + r Sin (β/2)
AB = 2 r Sin (β/2) AB = BC = CD = 2 r Sin (β/2)
If there are ‘m’ slots per phase per pole, then

Arithmetic Sum /phase of the EMF = m x (2 r Sin (β/2) )

Vector Sum of EMF AD = AE + ED

Vector Sum of EMF AE = ED = r Sin (m β/2)
Arithmetic
Vector Sum of EMF = 2r x (Sin (mβ/2)) sum=AB+BC+C
D.
Example

A 3Φ, 50 Hz, star connected salient pole

alternator has 216 slots with 5 conductors per
slot. All the conductors of each phase are
connected in series; the winding is distributed
and full pitched.
The flux per pole is 30 mwb and the alternator
runs at 250 rpm.
Determine the phase and line voltages of emf
induced.
Solution :
Ns =250rpm,f=50Hz,
P=120xf/Ns =120x50/250=24poles
m = number of slots/pole/phase = 216/(24 x 3) = 3
β = 3600 / number of slots = 3600 / 216 = 1.660 Mech =200 Electrical

Distribution factor Kd = ( sin mβ/2) / (m sin β/2)

= ( sin (3 x 20 / 2)) / (3 sin 20/2)
= 0.9597
Kp = 1 for full pitched winding.
Total no. of conductors , Z = (216 x5) =1080
Conductors per phase, Zph= total conductors /no. of phases
=Z/3=1080/3=360
Turns per phase ,Tph= Zph/2 = 360/2=180
Therefore
Eph = 4.44 Kp Kd f Ф Tph volts
=4.44x1x0.9597x50x30x10-3 x180
= 1150.488 volts
Hence the line Voltage EL = √3 x phase voltage = √3 Eph
= √3 x1150.488
AC synchronous generator
 AC synchronous generator
• An ac synchronous generator with a 2-pole field winding on the rotor and a
single coil aa’ on the stator.
• The rotor poles are salient (projecting) poles excited by means of dc fed to
the concentrated field winding.
• The current is fed to the rotor via two slip-rings and carbon brushes.
• The magnetic neutral regions are located in the interpolar gaps.
• In ac machines it is desirable for the induced emfs to be sinusoidal in
waveform, therefore, flux density wave in the machine air-gap must be
sinusoidal.
• This is achieved in the salient pole construction (with concentrated field
coils) by providing nonuniform air-gap above pole- shoes; minimum air-gap
in the middle of the pole-shoe progressively increasing towards outer edges.
• This results in the emf being induced along the stator conductors as per the
Blv rule, with emf direction on being governed by the Fleming’s right-hand
rule.
 Harmonic Generation
• The main cause of the harmonics generation are the “non-
linear” loads.
• Linear load is a load that draws instantaneously proportional
current to the applied voltage, i.e., its impedance is
maintained constant along the whole alternating period.
• Linear loads can be classified as resistive (electrical heaters,
incandescence light bulbs), capacitive (capacitors usually
found as part of systems or equipments), inductive
(transformers, motors), or combinations of some of them.
• Non-Linear load - In opposition to linear-loads, a non-linear
load changes its impedance with instantaneous applied
voltage, that will lead to a non-sinusoidal current draw
when the applied voltage it’s so.
• Non-linear load does not have a constant relation current vs.
voltage along the alternating period
 Harmonic Generation
• The simplest circuit to represent a non-linear load is a diode-
rectifier, with its multiple variants (full-wave diode rectifier,
half-wave diode rectifier, single-phase or three-phase).
• Some examples of non-linear loads, capable of injecting
harmonics into an electrical distribution, are: industrial
equipment (welding, arc furnace), variable frequency drives
(VFD), line-switched rectifiers, switch-mode power supplies,
lighting ballasts … and also modern electronic equipments, at
low load levels, even they could be designed to optimize
efficiency around it’s rated working point.
• All these circuits can contain semiconductor power devices
such as diodes, thyristors (SCR’s), transistors, and/or switching
of loads or circuits.
• Both motors and transformers will however create harmonics
when they are over-fluxed or saturated.
 Slot Harmonics
• As the armature or stator of an alternator is slotted, some harmonics are
induced into the emf which is called slot harmonics.
• The presence of slot in the stator makes the air gap reluctance at the surface of
the stator non uniform.
• Since in case of alternators the poles are moving or there is a relative motion
between the stator and rotor, the slots and the teeth alternately occupy any
point in the air gap.
• Due to this the reluctance or the air gap will be continuously varying. Due to
this variation of reluctance, ripples will be formed in the air gap between the
rotor and stator slots and teeth. This ripple formed in the air gap will induce
ripple emf called slot harmonics.
• Effects of Harmonics:
1. Increased losses ,thermal fatigue
2. Vibration and noise
3. Poor power factor in Ac drives
4. Heating shortens life of switchgear
5. Earthing issues
 Harmonic Content in the Distributed Winding
• The flux density wave of a synchronous machine is never
exactly sine wave.
• Because of odd symmetry of poles (alternately north-south), the
space harmonic content of the B-wave comprises odd
harmonics only, which induce the corresponding harmonic
emf’s in the winding.
• The fundamental B-wave, and its third-harmonic; because of
somewhat flat-topped nature of the B-wave, its third-harmonic
is of the “dipping’’ kind, producing a flux density dip of in the
middle of the main pole.
• Thus n poles of the nth harmonic occur in the space
occupied by one pole of the fundamental.
• Thus,
θ (nth harmonic) = n θ (fundamental)
 Harmonic Content in the Distributed Winding
• The flux density wave of a synchronous machine is never exactly
sine wave.
• Because of odd symmetry of poles (alternately north-south), the
space harmonic content of the B-wave comprises odd harmonics
only, which induce the corresponding harmonic emf’s in the
winding.
• the fundamental B-wave, and its third-harmonic; because of
somewhat flat-topped nature of the B-wave, its third-harmonic is
of the “dipping’’ kind, producing a flux density dip of in the
middle of the main pole.
• Thus for n poles of the nth harmonic occur in the space occupied
by one of pole the fundamental.
• Thus,
θ (nth harmonic) = n θ (fundamental)
ndamental B-wave, and its third-harmon
 Harmonics
• When the uniformly sinusoidally distributed air gap flux is cut by either the
stationary or rotating armature, sinusoidal emf is induced in the alternator.
Hence the nature of the waveform of induced emf and current is sinusoidal. But
when the alternator is loaded, waveform may not continue to be sinusoidal or
becomes nonsinusoidal.
• By using Fourier series representation it is possible to represent complex
nonsinusoidal waveform in terms of series of sinusoidal components called
harmonics, whose frequencies are integral multiples of fundamental wave.
• The waveform, which is of the frequency twice that of the fundamental is called
second harmonic. The one which is having the frequency three times that of the
fundamental is called third harmonic and so on. These harmonic components
can be represented as follows.
• Fundamental: e1 = Em1 Sin (ωt ± θ1)
• 2nd Harmonic e2 = Em2 Sin (2ωt ± θ2)
• 3rd Harmonic e3 = Em3 Sin (3ωt ± θ3)
• 5th Harmonic e5 = Em5 Sin (5ωt ± θ5) etc.
• In case of alternators, as the field system and the stator coils are symmetrical
the induced emf will also be symmetrical and hence the generated emf in an
alternator will not contain any even harmonics.
 Effect of Harmonics on Kp,Kd
• In electrical machine, every effort is made to make the
magnetic flux density wave sinusoidal in space.
• But practically, it is never distributed sinusoidally in space and
contains various harmonics.
• Out of various harmonics, third harmonic is the most dominant.
• A third harmonic component of flux density wave may be
assumed to be produced by 3 poles as compared to the one pole
for fundamental component.
• In view of this, the angular slot pitch for third harmonic will
be 3γ and hence nγ for nth harmonics.
• In the view of this, the chording angle for the rth harmonic
becomes r times the chording angle for the fundamental
component and pitch factor for the rth harmonic is given as,
 Effect of Harmonics on Pitch Factor
The rth harmonic becomes zero, if,

• In 3 phase alternator, the 3rd harmonic is suppressed by star or delta

connection as in the case of 3 phase transformer.
• Total attention is given for designing a 3 phase alternator winding
design, for 5th and 7th harmonics.

For 5th harmonic

For 7th harmonic

By adopting a suitable chording angle of α = 30o,( design of armature

winding of alternator is optimized.
Effect of Harmonics on Distribution Factor
If the flux distribution contains space harmonics the slot angular
pitch β on the fundamental scale, would become rβ for the rth
harmonic component and thus the distribution factor for the r th
harmonic would be

Emf induced for any nth harmonic En ph = 4.44 kpn kdn (nf ) Φn Tph

Phase voltage = √ (Eph1 + Eph3 + Eph5)

Line voltage = √3 x √ (Eph1+ Eph5)
 Effect of Harmonics
• In 3 phase alternator, the 3rd harmonic is suppressed by star or delta
connection as in the case of 3 phase transformer.
• Total attention is given for designing a 3 phase alternator winding
design, for 5th and 7th harmonics.
• A chording angle of 300 electrical is most useful as it gives following
pitch factors
• 0.909 for fundamental,0.707 for 3rd harmonic 0.259 for 5th and 7th
harmonics
.
• By adopting a suitable chording angle of α = 30o, design of armature
winding of alternator is optimized
• Hence 3 phase alternators are invariably star connected to
eliminate triplen harmonics (multiples of 3 i.e. 3 rd 9th) from line
emfs
• 5th and 7th harmonics of reduced magnitude are present in lines.
 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
How is DC current applied to the rotor?

1- Slip Rings Note: Magnetic field of

rotor can also be
produced by permanent
magnets for small
machine applications

2- Brushless Excitation System:

Excitation supplied from ac exciter and solid
rectifiers.
The alternator of the ac exciter and the
rectification system are on the rotor.
The current is supplied directly to the field-
winding without the need to use slip rings.
 Rotating Field

When 3 phase supply is given to a 3 phase winding, a Rotating

magnetic field of constant magnitude is produced
Rotating Magnetic Field
Rotating Magnetic Field
Rotating Magnetic Field
Brushless Excitation System

Block diagram of a Brushless Excitation System