“Whatever(that) my hands

find to do, I shall do it with all

my might; for when I die, I
shall get no work to do in the
grave”
1
MCEN 407: MEASUREMENT AND
INSTRUMENTATION

Good measurement wrong measurement

 Course Outline
 Introduction to measurement and
instrumentation
 Instrumentation types and performance
characteristics
 Errors in measurement process
 Calibration of measuring sensors and
instruments
 Variable conversion elements
 Display, Recording and Presentation of
measurement data
 Control system component
 Sensor Technology
 1 Introduction to measurement and
instrumentation
Measurement techniques have been of immense
important ever since the start of human civilization,
when measurement were first needed to regulate the
transfer of goods in barter trade to ensure that
exchanges were fair. Such early systems were based
on whatever was available as the measuring unit.
Human feet and hand were used for length
measurement etc. Although the measurement unit
were adequate for barter trade, such measurement
unit were imprecise.
Therefore, there has been a progressive
movement towards measurement units that
defined much more accurately. This brought
about the standard units use in engineering.
Measurement system applications
Present-day applications of measurement system
can be classified into three
i. Measurement of physical quantities
ii. Monitoring function
iii. Control system
Instruments were employed to measure physical
quantities such as length, mass and volume in term
of standard unit. Example of instrument that
measure physical quantities is thermometer which
measures the temperature of a given place.
The second application is in monitoring functions.
These provide information that enables humans to
take some prescribed action accordingly. Example,
the speedometer of car tells us weather to
accelerate or decelerate when over taking or trying
to reach destination at a given time.
Lastly, use as part of automatic feedback control
systems. Assuming we want the temperature of an
incubator not to exceed 37, a thermometer is use as
the feedback path so as to adjust the temperature to
maintain the desired temperature.
Elements of a measurement system
Measuring system provide information on the
physical quantities being measured. The system can
consist of only a single unit that gives an output
reading or signal according to the magnitude of the
unknown quantity or variable applied to it. Or consist
of several separate elements used for measuring a
physical variable unknown as complex measurement
system.
Fig 1.1 depicts the elements of a measuring
system

Fig 1.1 elements of a measuring system

• The first element in any measuring system is the
primary sensor: This gives an output that is a
function of the measurand( I e the input applied).
For most but not all sensor, this function is at least
approximately linear. Some examples of primary
sensors are thermometer, strain gauge, mercury-
in-glass thermometer, thermocouple etc.
• Variable Conversion element: The variable
conversion elements were needed where the
output variable from the primary transducer was
inconvenient form and need to be converted to
convenient form.
Example, when measuring an analog variable
connected to PC which is digital in nature. The
analog data need to be converted for the PC to
read the signal.
• Signal processing element: This exist to
improve the quality of the output of the
measuring system. A very common type of
signal processing element is the electronic
amplifier, which amplifies the output of the
primary transducer or variable conversion
element. They also serve as filters that filter the
signals from background noise. In some
devices,
the signal processing is incorporated into a
transducer which is known as a transmitter.
In addition to these components, some
measurement systems have one to two other
components. One is to transmit the signal to some
remote point or suitable point and second to record
the data for use or for control purpose when use as
feedback signal.
Choosing appropriate measuring instrument
The vital information need for choice of instrument
is the specification of the instrument characteristic
requirement especially parameter like the desired
measurement accuracy,
Resolution, sensitivity and dynamic
performance. It also essential to know the
environmental conditions that the instrument
will be subjected to, as some conditions will
immediately either eliminate the possibility of
using certain types of instrument.
 2 Instruments type and performance
characteristics
Instrument can be subdivided into separate classes
according to several criteria. These classification helps
in choosing an instrument suitable for a particular
measurement. This instruments can be divided into the
following classes:
i. Active and passive instruments
ii. Null-type and deflection-type instruments
iii. Analogue and digital instruments
iv. Indicating instruments and instruments with a
signal output
 Active and passive instrument
Instruments are divided into active or passive ones
according to whether the instrument output is
entirely produced by the quantity being measured
or whether the quantity being measured simply
modulate the magnitude of some external power
source. An example of a passive-measuring device
is the analog bathroom scale in which the pointer
translate the magnitude of the weight. Example of
an active measuring device is the potentiometer. A
potentiometer gives an output voltage
corresponding to the measured input which is
achieved through the variable resistor.
Fig2.1: Passive Bathroom scale Fig2.2: Active Potentiometer

 Null-type and Deflection-type instrument

This is another division of instruments. As the
names implies, the deflection types are mostly
The analog type of instruments. They give the
reading or the magnitude of the measurand by
deflecting the pointer to the corresponding
measurand magnitude. Example of a deflection
type instrument is the pressure gauge. While the
null-type of instrument, weight are added to the
instrument until the magnitude of the weight
correspond to the magnitude of the measurand.
This was reached when the weight and the
measurand are at equilibrium or deadweight
(null stage). Example of null-type instrument is
the beam balance.
The null-type instrument is more accurate than
the deflection type as the spring of the
deflection type can fail leading to error in
measurement and also calibration error.
However, deflection type are easier to read as
majority of the instrument are linear in nature.
This makes it more suitable for use in workshops
and another working place while the null-type
are use for calibrating the deflection type. The
figures below depicts the null and the deflection
types of instrument.
Fig2.3 Beam Balance Fig2.4 Pressure Gauge
 Analogue and Digital Instrument
An analogue instrument gives an output that
varies continuously as the quantity being
measured changes.
The output can be infinite number of values within
the range that the instrument is designed to
measure. Most of deflection type instrument are
analogue in nature.
However, the digital instrument measure the
quantity and gives the magnitude in discrete
values. So it have a finite number of values. With
the rapid growth in the application
microcomputers to automatic control system, an
instrument which output is in digital form is
therefore advantageous in such applications as
no need of converter A/D.
 Indicating instrument and instrument with a signal
output
This is the final way in which instruments can be
divided between those that give an audio or visual
indication of the magnitude of the physical quantity
measured and those that give output in form of a
measurement signal whose magnitude is proportional
to the measured quantity. The indicating instrument
consist all null-type instruments and most of analogue
instruments. Example bathroom scale. One major
setback of indicating instrument is that human
intervention is required to read and record a
measurement which can lead to systematic errors.
The instrument that has signal output are
commonly used as part of automatic control
systems.
2.2 performance characteristics of instruments
The performance of an instrument is the
specification of the instrument saying what the
instrument can do and can measure. Such
specification are incorporated in designing a
measuring device. The characteristics of
instrument can be divided into two:
i. Static characteristics
ii. Dynamic characteristics
o Static characteristics
The static characteristics determine the performance
of a given instrument or device. Static characteristics
of measuring instrument are concerned only with the
steady state reading that the instrument settle down
to, such as accuracy of the reading. We will consider
eleven static characteristics of an instrument.
i. Accuracy and Inaccuracy: The accuracy of a
measuring instrument or device is the degree of
closeness of the reading to the actual magnitude
of the measurand. In practical, it is more usual to
quote the inaccuracy figure rather than the
accuracy figure of the instrument.
The extend to which a reading will deviate from the
actual reading and is often quoted as a percentage of
the full-scale(f.s) reading of the instrument. The
inaccuracy of the instrument is written on the
specification of the instrument as ±1.0%. This means
the device can give error of ±1% of the reading on the
instrument. The term measurement uncertainty is
frequently used in place of inaccuracy.
o Precision/repeatability/reproducibility: The ability
of an instrument to give a very small varying
readings when the same quantity is applied at
constant condition or at varying conditions is
known as high precision instrument.
When the measurement was repeated under the
same conditions and achieving very close readings, is
described as repeatability. While, when the
conditions of varies when repeating the
measurement, is then described as reproducibility.
The degree of repeatability or reproducibility in
measurements from an instrument is an alternative
way of expressing its precision.
o Tolerance: Tolerance described the maximum
deviation of the component from some specified
values. Example a spring has the maximum weight
that it can withstand before exceeding the Hooke's
law. That weight is the tolerance of the spring.
o Range or span: This is the minimum and
maximum values the instrument can measure. For
example using a voltmeter of range 1-10mV to
measure voltage of 2V.
o Linearity: This describes the changes in output
reading corresponding to the change in input
quantity linearly. The increase in the input
quantity translate to increase in the output
readings.
o Sensitivity of measurement: This is the smallest
input that the instrument can detect and give an
output. this can be mathematically represented
as:
Sensitivity ratio=
The sensitivity of measurement is therefore the
slope of the straight line.
Example1: The following resistance values of a
platinum resistance thermometer were
measured at a range of temperature. Determine

𝛺/℃
the measuring sensitivity of the instrument in
Resistance(𝛺) Temperature(℃)

307 200

314 230

321 260

328 290
o Threshold: The minimum magnitude of the
measurand that the instrument can give an
output is known as the threshold of the
instrument.
o Resolution: