University of Education-Winneba

Faculty of Science Education

Department ofClick
Physics
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PHY 352
Introduction & Basic Concepts

Lecturer Contact
Details
Dr. Desmond Appiah
 Objectives
• Identify the unique vocabulary associated with
thermodynamics through the precise definition of
basic concepts to form a sound foundation for the
development of the principles of thermodynamics.
• Review the metric SI and the English unit systems.
• Explain the basic concepts of thermodynamics such
as system, state, state postulate, equilibrium,
process, and cycle.
• Review concepts of temperature, temperature scales,
pressure, and absolute and gage pressure.
• Introduce an intuitive systematic problem-solving
technique.
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 THERMODYNAMICS AND ENERGY
• Thermodynamics: The science of
energy.
• Energy: The ability to cause changes.
• The name thermodynamics stems from
the Greek words therme (heat) and
dynamis (power).
• Conservation of energy principle:
During an interaction, energy can change
from one form to another but the total
amount of energy remains constant.
• Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
• The first law of thermodynamics: An
expression of the conservation of energy
principle.
Energy cannot be created
• The first law asserts that energy is a or destroyed; it can only
thermodynamic property. change forms (the first law).
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• The second law of thermodynamics:
It asserts that energy has quality as
well as quantity, and actual processes
occur in the direction of decreasing
quality of energy.
• Classical thermodynamics: A
macroscopic approach to the study of
thermodynamics that does not require
Conservation of energy
a knowledge of the behavior of
principle for the human body.
individual particles.
• It provides a direct and easy way to the
solution of engineering problems and it
is used in this text.
• Statistical thermodynamics: A
microscopic approach, based on the
average behavior of large groups of
individual particles.
• It is used in this text only in the Heat flows in the direction of
supporting role. decreasing temperature. 4
Application Areas of Thermodynamics

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 IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
• Any physical quantity can be characterized by
dimensions.
• The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions
are called units.
• Some basic dimensions such as mass m,
length L, time t, and temperature T are
selected as primary or fundamental
dimensions, while others such as velocity V,
energy E, and volume V are expressed in
terms of the primary dimensions and are
called secondary dimensions, or derived
dimensions.
• Metric SI system: A simple and logical
system based on a decimal relationship
between the various units.
• English system: It has no apparent
systematic numerical base, and various units
in this system are related to each other rather
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arbitrarily.
 Some SI and English Units

Work = Force  Distance

1 J = 1 N∙m The SI unit prefixes are used in all
1 cal = 4.1868 J branches of engineering.
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ

The definition of the force units.

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 W weight
m mass
g gravitational
acceleration

A body weighing
60 kgf on earth
will weigh only 10
kgf on the moon.

The relative magnitudes of the force

units newton (N), kilogram-force
(kgf), and pound-force (lbf).

The weight of a unit

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mass at sea level.
Dimensional homogeneity
All equations must be dimensionally homogeneous.

Unity Conversion Ratios

All nonprimary units (secondary units) can be
formed by combinations of primary units.
Force units, for example, can be expressed as

They can also be expressed more conveniently

as unity conversion ratios as

To be dimensionally
homogeneous, all the
Unity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and terms in an equation
are unitless, and thus such ratios (or their inverses) must have the same unit.
can be inserted conveniently into any calculation to
properly convert units.
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 SYSTEMS AND CONTROL VOLUMES

• System: A quantity of matter or a

region in space chosen for study.
Or A system is anything which is
real in the universe
• Surroundings: The mass or
region outside the system
• Boundary: The real or imaginary
surface that separates the system
from its surroundings.
• The boundary of a system can be
fixed or movable.
• Systems may be considered to be
closed, open or isolated.

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CLOSED SYSTEM WITH FIXED BOUNDARY
Energy, not mass, MOVES closed-system boundaries

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CLOSED SYSTEM WITH MOVING BOUNDRY

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OPEN SYSTEMS (CONTROL VOLUMES)
Mass and Energy Cross Control Volume Boundaries

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 • Open system (control volume): A properly
selected region in space.
• It usually encloses a device that involves
mass flow such as a compressor, hydraulic
pump, turbine, or nozzle.
• Both mass and energy can cross the
boundary of a control volume.
• Control surface: The boundaries of a
control volume. It can be real or imaginary.

An open system (a
control volume) with one
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inlet and one exit.
 ISOLATED SYSTEM

• Closed system where no heat or work (energy) and mass may

cross the system boundary.
• A perfectly insulated closed vessel such as thermoflask

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 PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
• Property: Any characteristic of a
system.
• Some familiar properties are
pressure P, temperature T, volume
V, and mass m.
• Properties are considered to be
either intensive or extensive.
• Intensive properties: Those that
are independent of the mass of a
system, such as temperature,
pressure, and density.
Criterion to differentiate intensive and
• Extensive properties: Those extensive properties.
whose values depend on the size— A state of a system is its condition at a
or extent—of the system. specific time, that is fully identified by
• Specific properties: Extensive values of a suitable set of parameters
properties per unit mass. known as state variables, state
parameters or thermodynamic
variables.
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DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Density Specific gravity: The ratio
of the density of a
substance to the density of
some standard substance at
a specified temperature
Specific volume
(usually water at 4°C).

Specific weight: The

weight of a unit volume
of a substance.

Density is
mass per unit
volume;
specific volume
is volume per
unit mass.
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Density is a characteristic property of a substance. This means that the density
of water
a) changes depending on the volume
b) stays the same regardless of the volume
c) is greater for a greater mass of water
d) is less for a smaller mass of water

Explain why density is considered as an intensive property?

Intensive property is independent of mass of the system as stated earlier. For
density, consider buying fuel of 3 litres in the morning and buying 6 litres in the
evening, the density of the oil does not change irrespective of the quantity bought.

Explain why pressure is considered as an intensive property?

• Pressure is the normal force of molecules exerted on a wall per unit area
• Consider a room subjected to pressure ‘P’, if you divided the room into two
halves, the pressure in each room remains same
• Recall F=ma (acceleration of all particles remain same)
• Room divided so the mass is halved and the normal area is also halved thus
pressure is constant

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STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
• Thermodynamics deals with
equilibrium states.
• Equilibrium: A state of balance.
• In an equilibrium state there are no
unbalanced potentials (or driving
forces) within the system.
• Thermal equilibrium: If the
temperature is the same throughout
the entire system. A system at two different states.
• Mechanical equilibrium: If there is
no change in pressure at any point
of the system with time.
• Phase equilibrium: If a system
involves two phases and when the
mass of each phase reaches an
equilibrium level and stays there.
• Chemical equilibrium: If the
chemical composition of a system
does not change with time, that is,
no chemical reactions occur. A closed system reaching thermal
equilibrium. 19
 The State Postulate
• The number of properties required to fix
the state of a system is given by the state
postulate:
 The state of a simple compressible
system is completely specified by two
independent, intensive properties.
• Simple compressible system: If a
system involves no electrical, magnetic,
gravitational, motion, and surface tension
effects.

The state of nitrogen is

fixed by two independent,
intensive properties.

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PROCESSES AND CYCLES
Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to
another.
Path: The series of states through which a system passes during a process.
To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states, as
well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.
Quasistatic or quasi-equilibrium process: When a process proceeds in such a
manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at
all times.

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Compression Process

• Each point on the curve

represents an equilibrium state
of the system.

• The ideal gas law (PV = nRT),

only describes the system when
it is in a state of thermal
equilibrium.

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 Quasi-Equilibrium Processes
• System remains practically in equilibrium at
all times
• Easier to analyze (equations of state can
apply)
• Work-producing devices deliver the most
work
• Work-consuming devices consume the
least amount of work

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• Process diagrams plotted by
employing thermodynamic properties
as coordinates are very useful in
visualizing the processes.
• Some common properties that are
used as coordinates are temperature
T, pressure P, and volume V (or
specific volume v).
• The prefix iso- is often used to
designate a process for which a
particularproperty remains constant.
• Isothermal process: A process
during which the temperature T
remains constant.
The P-V diagram of a compression
• Isobaric process: A process during
which the pressure P remains process.
constant.
• Isochoric (or isometric) process: A
process during which the specific
volume v remains constant.
• Cycle: A process during which the
initial and final states are identical.
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Cycle
The Steady-Flow Process
• The term steady implies no
change with time. The
opposite of steady is
unsteady, or transient.
• A large number of During a steady-
engineering devices operate flow process, fluid
for long periods of time properties within
under the same conditions, the control
and they are classified as volume may
steady-flow devices. change with
• Steady-flow process: A position but not
process during which a fluid with time.
flows through a control
volume steadily.
• Steady-flow conditions can
be closely approximated by
devices that are intended for
continuous operation such
as turbines, pumps, boilers,
condensers, and heat
exchangers or power plants Under steady-flow conditions, the mass
or refrigeration systems. and energy contents of a control volume 25
remain constant.
 TEMPERATURE AND THE ZEROTH LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
• The zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with
each other.
• By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can be
restated as two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the
same temperature reading even if they are not in contact.

Two bodies reaching

thermal equilibrium
after being brought
into contact in an
isolated enclosure. 26
 Temperature Scales
• P versus T plots
All temperature scales are based on
some easily reproducible states such as of the
the freezing and boiling points of water: experimental
the ice point and the steam point. data obtained
• Ice point: A mixture of ice and water from a constant-
that is in equilibrium with air saturated volume gas
with vapor at 1 atm pressure (0°C or thermometer
32°F). using four
• Steam point: A mixture of liquid water different gases
and water vapor (with no air) in at different (but
equilibrium at 1 atm pressure (100°C or low) pressures.
212°F).
• Celsius scale: in SI unit system
• Fahrenheit scale: in English unit
system
• Thermodynamic temperature scale: A
temperature scale that is independent of
the properties of any substance.
• Kelvin scale (SI) Rankine scale (E)
• A temperature scale nearly identical to
the Kelvin scale is the ideal-gas
temperature scale. The temperatures
on this scale are measured using a A constant-volume gas thermometer would
constant-volume gas thermometer. read 273.15°C at absolute zero pressure. 27
 Comparison of
temperature
scales.

Comparison of
magnitudes of
various
temperature
units.

• The reference temperature in the original Kelvin scale was the ice point,
273.15 K, which is the temperature at which water freezes (or ice melts).
• The reference point was changed to a much more precisely reproducible
point, the triple point of water (the state at which all three phases of water
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coexist in equilibrium), which is assigned the value 273.16 K.
Summary
• Thermodynamics and energy
 Application areas of thermodynamics
• Importance of dimensions and units
 Some SI and English units, Dimensional homogeneity,
Unity conversion ratios
• Systems and control volumes
• Properties of a system
• Density and specific gravity
• State and equilibrium
 The state postulate
• Processes and cycles
 The steady-flow process
• Temperature and the zeroth law of thermodynamics
 Temperature scales

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