ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS: MECHANICAL ELEMENTS,

ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS, AND POWER TRANSMISSION

LECTURE (4)
1
 Mechanical
Systems (Springs)

2
OVERVIEW
 Springs are mechanical devices used to
store and release energy. They are
commonly used to provide force, absorb
shock, maintain contact between
components, and control motion.
 Types of Springs:
1. Compression Springs: Used when a
load is applied to compress the spring.
 In the automotive sector, compression
springs are commonly used
in suspension systems. They help
absorb shocks from the road, ensuring a
smooth ride by compressing under load
and returning to their original shape when
the load is removed. This action enhances
vehicle stability and comfort for
passengers. 3
OVERVIEW

2. Tension (Extension) Springs: Used

when a load pulls on the spring.
 In the automotive industry, tension
springs are used in door mechanisms.
They help keep the door closed by pulling
it tightly against the frame when it is shut.
This ensures that the door remains
securely closed while allowing for easy
opening when needed.

4
 OVERVIEW
3. Torsion Springs: Operate by twisting

Applications: Torsion springs are widely used in

various applications, including door hinges, garage
doors, and mechanical clocks. In these cases, the
twisting action of the spring provides the
necessary force to operate mechanisms smoothly
and efficiently

5
 GOVERNING EQUATION (HOOKE'S LAW)
The force exerted by a spring is proportional to its displacement:
Where:
• Force applied by the spring ()
•Spring constant (), a measure of stiffness
• Displacement from the equilibrium position ()

For torsional springs, the equation is:

Where:
•Moment ()
• = Torsional spring constant ()
• = Angular displacement ()

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 Mechanical
Systems (Ball and
Roller Bearings)
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OVERVIEW (I)
 Bearings reduce friction between moving
parts, allowing for smoother rotation or
movement while supporting loads.
Bearings are classified based on the type
of motion they facilitate (rotational or
linear).
 Types of Bearings:
1. Ball Bearings: Ball bearings are crucial
mechanical components that utilize
spherical rolling elements to significantly
reduce friction in rotating shafts. Their
design and function allow for smoother
operation in various machinery and
equipment..
 Applications : All rotating elements:
such in transportation where ball bearings
are found in vehicles, bicycles, and
skateboards, where they support wheels 8

and other rotating components, enhancing

performance and safety
OVERVIEW(II)

2. Roller Bearings: Roller bearings are

mechanical components that utilize
cylindrical or tapered rolling elements to
support loads while minimizing friction.
Their design allows for efficient
movement in various applications, making
them essential in many industries..
 Application: Automotive Industry
where roller bearings are found in wheel
hubs, transmissions, and differentials,
where they support rotating shafts and
reduce friction during operation.

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 GOVERNING EQUATION (I)
Let us first define the followings:
a) Radial Load
Definition: A radial load acts perpendicular to the axis of the shaft. This type of load is
typically encountered in applications where the bearing supports the weight of a rotating shaft
or any external forces acting downwards or sideways.
Direction: The radial load is directed at a 90-degree angle to the shaft's axis, meaning it
pushes outward from the center of the bearing towards the outer race

b) Axial Load
Definition: An axial load, also known as a thrust load, acts parallel to the axis of the shaft.
This load occurs in applications where forces are applied along the length of the shaft, such as
in gear assemblies or when a load is applied directly along the shaft's direction.
Direction: The axial load is directed along the axis of the bearing, either pushing or pulling
along the shaft (source) (source).
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The radial load or axial load acting on a bearing can be determined by manufacturer
specifications or through some mathematical equations, depending on the specific
GOVERNING EQUATION(II)
Here are some common approaches to calculate or obtain the value of the radial load or :
c) Static Analysis
In cases where the bearing supports a static load, the radial load can be calculated directly
from the weight of the component being supported or the force acting perpendicular to the
shaft.
Formula:
or
Where is the weight of the object supported by the bearing .
d) Dynamic Load Conditions
For dynamic applications, such as rotating machinery, the radial load can be calculated based
on the operating conditions of the machine. This includes factors like acceleration, deceleration,
and the forces acting on the shaft.
Formula:
or
Where: 11
• is the mass of the rotating component .
• is the radial or axial acceleration ().
GOVERNING EQUATION (III)

1. Equivalent Dynamic Load

The equivalent dynamic load for a ball bearing subjected to both radial and axial loads can
be calculated using:

Where:
​is the radial load .

is the axial load .

and are factors that depend on the bearing type and the ratio of axial to radial load (often
derived from manufacturer specifications)

is The race rotation factor, , is 1 when the inner race rotates and the outer race is stationary,
and 1.2 when the outer race rotates. Typically, is 1 in most of applications where the inner race
rotates, used in the equivalent dynamic load equation. 12
 GOVERNING EQUATION (III)
2. The relationship between the dynamic load carrying capacity , the equivalent dynamic load ,
and the bearing life is given by:

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 GOVERNING EQUATIONS (VI)
3. The relationship between life in million revolutions and life in working hours is given by:

Where
:Rated bearing life in hours
Speed of rotation in rpm

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GOVERNING EQUATIONS (VII)
4. Frictional Torque : The frictional torque in a ball bearing can be estimated using:

Frictional torque (N.m)

Coefficient of friction (dimensionless)
Radial load (N)
Radius of the bearing (m)

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BEARING SELECTION PROCEDURE (I)
The basic procedure for the selection of a bearing from
the manufacturer’s catalogue consists of the following
steps.

1. Calculate the radial and axial forces acting on the

bearing and determine the diameter of the shaft
where the bearing is to be fitted.

2. Select the type of bearing for the given application.

X and Y factor for single row deep groove ball bearing

3. Determine the values of X and Y, the radial and thrust factors, from the catalogue. The values
of X and Y factors for single-row deep groove ball bearings are given in following side Table.
The values depend upon two ratios and where is the static load capacity
4. The static and dynamic load capacities of single-row deep groove ball bearings of different 16
series are given by manufacturer data sheet ( one example is available ahead)
BEARING SELECTION PROCEDURE (II)

shaft and the value of Co is found from Table. Knowing the ratios(𝐹𝑎/𝐹𝑟) and (𝐹𝑎/𝐶0) the
To begin with, a bearing of light series, such as 60,is selected for the given diameter of the

values of X and Y factors are found from Table (slide16):

6. Calculate the equivalent dynamic load from the equation.

7. Decide about the expected bearing life and express the life L10 in million revolutions.

8. Calculate the dynamic load capacity from the equation

9. Check whether the selected bearing of series 60 has the required dynamic capacity. If not,
select the bearing of the next series and go back to Step (3) and continue.

10.Ball bearings are thus selected by the trial-and-error procedure. The above procedure is
17
also applicable to other types of bearings
NUMERICAL EXAMPLE (I)
Exercise:
To explain the selection procedure, let us consider a numerical example.
Suppose it is required to select a single-row deep groove ball bearing, for
a shaft that is in diameter, and which rotates at . The bearing is subjected to a
radial load of and there is no thrust load. The expected life of the bearing
is 10000 hr.

The equivalent dynamic load with no axial load equation ( ).

The rated bearing life in million revolutions

The dynamic load capacity

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NUMERICAL EXAMPLE (II)
From Craft bearing catalogue page 18, the convenient bearing is series 63, ISO 6315
with d=75 and Dyn.C 111400

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 Mechanical
Systems (Journal
Bearing)
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 OVERVIEW

3. A journal bearing is a type of bearing that supports a

rotating shaft (or journal) within a stationary sleeve or
housing. This design allows the shaft to rotate smoothly
while minimizing friction and wear. Journal bearings are
widely used in various mechanical applications,
particularly in machinery where continuous motion and
load support are required.
 Key Features of Journal Bearings :
 Consist of a rotating shaft within a stationary sleeve for
smooth rotation.
 Use a lubricating oil film to prevent direct contact and
reduce wear.
 Commonly found in engines, turbines, and pumps for
load support.
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 Made from materials like babbitt to absorb wear and
extend life.
 JOURNAL BEARING SELECTION (I)
1. Select the ratio

: length of the journal (the part of the shaft that contacts the bearing).

: diameter of the journal.

The ratio is typically chosen based on the application (load, speed, etc.). This affects the
bearing's load-carrying capacity and lubrication requirements.

2. Calculate the bearing pressure :

: applied load or force applied on the bearing.

Check this pressure against the maximum allowable bearing pressure from the design data
book. For the design to be safe, should be greater than .

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JOURNAL BEARING SELECTION (II)
3. Calculate the Bearing Characteristic Number:

: absolute viscosity of the lubricant. rotational speed of the shaft. Using this formula, calculate
the ratio and select the nearest operating value from the design data book to ensure the
bearing works efficiently.
The term represents the performance of the oil film. It tells us how well the oil can resist
breaking down under the combined effects of load, speed, and oil viscosity.

4. Re-calculate the ratio at the point where oil film may break:

bearing modulus (a property that depends on the bearing geometry and material).

Ensure that the calculated ratio is greater than the bearing modulus , as this ensures that the
bearing operates in the hydrodynamic condition (where a continuous oil film separates the 23

journal and bearing surfaces, preventing metal-to-metal contact).

For standard or catalog bearings, manufacturers often provide the value of in their technical
 JOURNAL BEARING SELECTION (III)
5. Select the clearance ratio

: Radial clearance between the journal and the bearing (the space for
lubricant).
minimum clearance between the journal and the bearing and given by:

Diameter of the journal.

This ratio ​is crucial for determining how well the lubricant will flow and
how the bearing will perform under load.
6. Estimate the coefficient of friction
Viscosity of the Diameter of the journal.
lubricant. Radial clearance.
Rotational speed in Correction factor for end leakage, depending on theratio of the 24
rpm. bearing, typically given as for ratios between 0.75 and 2.8.
Bearing pressure.
JOURNAL BEARING SELECTION (VI)
7. Compute the heat generated :

𝑊: Load on the bearing.

Coefficient of friction.

𝑉: Surface velocity of the journal, where where 𝑑 is the diameter and is the rotational speed in
rpm).
This step calculates the heat generated by friction as the journal rotates within the bearing.
8. Compute the heat dissipated :

Heat dissipation coefficient (a material-specific property of the bearing).

Surface area of the bearing, (where is the length and is the diameter).
​: Bearing surface temperature.
​: Ambient temperature (outside temperature).
The heat dissipated depends on the bearing’s surface area and the temperature difference 25
between the bearing and the surroundings.
 JOURNAL BEARING SELECTION (VII)
Additionally, the formula helps estimate the average temperature difference between the
bearing and the surrounding environment, where is the temperature of the oil.

9. Safety check:
For the bearing to operate safely, the heat generated must be less than the heat dissipated .
If , the bearing is overheating, and it needs to be redesigned. This could involve improving
cooling, increasing the clearance, or using a higher-capacity bearing.

10.Cooling adjustment:
If the bearing generates more heat than it dissipates, external cooling measures are needed.
The amount of cooling required is , and the system will need to be redesigned based on this
new value, potentially with external cooling systems (such as oil coolers or air blowers).

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Exercise
Let's assume we have a journal bearing used in an industrial pump. The following parameters
are given or assumed for this application:
ꟷ The force exerted on the bearing by the shaft it supports : 5000 N. This could be due to the
weight of the components, dynamic forces from operation, or external forces applied to the
machinery.
ꟷ Journal Diameter : 0.1 m
ꟷ Journal Length : 0.15 m
ꟷ Rotational Speed : 1500 rpm
ꟷ Lubricant Viscosity : 0.1 Pa·s
ꟷ Ambient Temperature : 25°C
ꟷ Heat Dissipation Coefficient : 0.5 W/m²°C

Calculations:
1. Select the ratio:

This ratio is withing the typical range for journal bearings

2. Calculate Bearing pressure

This is the pressure exerted on the bearing surface by the load. It helps in assessing whether the
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bearing can handle the applied load without excessive wear or failure.
3. Calculate Bearing Characteristics

This value should be checked against design data to ensure efficient operation.

4. Calculate Coefficient of Friction , viscosity affects the formation of the lubricating film
between the journal and bearing surfaces : Assuming , radial clearance m, for the
given ratio:

Assuming a radial clearance m

The minimum oil film thickness is calculated to ensure proper hydrodynamic lubrication
assuming

5. Compute Heat Generated (​):

6. Compute Heat Dissipated (​): Assuming

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Safety Check
Heat Generated vs. Heat Dissipated:
• =176.71 W
• =0.075 W
Since > ​, the bearing is overheating. This indicates a need for redesign or additional cooling
measures.
Cooling Adjustment
•Required Cooling:

To address this, external cooling systems such as oil coolers or air blowers should be
considered to manage the excess heat.

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 Mechanical
Systems (Seals)

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OVERVIEW

 Overview:
 Seals are used to prevent the leakage of
fluids (lubricants, oil, gas, etc.) and to keep
contaminants out of systems. Seals are
critical in ensuring the longevity and
efficiency of mechanical components.
 Types of Seals:
 Static Seals: Used where there is no relative
motion between sealing surfaces (e.g.,
gaskets).
 Dynamic Seals: Used where there is relative
motion (e.g., O-rings, rotary shaft seals).
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GOVERNING EQUATION
 Governing Equations:
 The performance of seals can be described by the PV rating:

 Where:
 Pressure () , = Sliding velocity ()
 Pressure in mechanical seals refers to the force exerted by the fluid contained within the
system on the sealing surfaces. It is typically measured in pascals () or pounds per square
inch (psi).
 Sliding velocity is calculated based on the circumferential speed of the rotating face and is
typically expressed in meters per second (m/s)
 Seals must operate within their maximum rating to prevent failure.
 Application Example:
 Hydraulic Cylinders: Dynamic seals in hydraulic cylinders prevent fluid leakage while the
piston moves back and forth, maintaining pressure and preventing contamination. 32
 Fixing and
Fastening Systems

33
OVERVIEW
 Overview:
 Fixing and fastening systems refer to
mechanical components that join parts
together. This includes bolts, screws, nuts,
rivets, and adhesives. These systems
must be chosen based on the strength
requirements, material compatibility, and
environmental conditions.
 Types of Fasteners:
 Bolts and Screws: Provide strong
connections that can be disassembled.
 Rivets: Used for permanent fastening.
 Welds: Fusion of two components.
 Adhesives: Used for bonding without
mechanical fasteners. 34
GOVERNING EQUATIONS
For threaded fasteners like bolts, torque is usually fastened by calibrated torque wrench and
mathematically can be expressed as:
The torque-tension relationship is important:

Torque applied (Nm)

Constant (depends on material and surface finish)
Axial force (N)
Nominal diameter of the bolt (m)

Application Example:
Structural Steelwork: Bolts are used to fasten steel beams in construction. The torque
applied ensures proper tension, which directly affects the strength and safety of the structure.

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Electrical Windings
and Rotor/Stator
Housing Methods
36
OVERVIEW

 Electrical Windings: These are conductive

wires wound around a core to create a
magnetic field when current flows through.
Types include:
 Single-phase windings: Used in smaller
applications (like household fans motors).
 Three-phase windings: Common in
industrial motors due to their efficiency and
smooth power output.
 Stator: The stationary part of an electric
motor or generator where the windings are
placed.
 Rotor: The rotating part, driven by the
magnetic field generated in the stator.
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 KEY CONCEPTS
•Types of Windings: Concentric, Lap,
and Wave windings.
• Concentric windings have
multiple coils per phase, laid out
in concentric circles.
• Lap winding is typically used for
high-current, low-voltage
machines.
• Wave winding is often used in
high-voltage, low-current
applications. Concentric
•Rotor/Stator Housing:
• Importance of precise alignment
between rotor and stator to
minimize air gap and maximize 38
efficiency.
• Housing materials: Metals like
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Design Considerations for Electrical Windings and Rotor/Stator Housing
When designing electrical motors, particularly focusing on windings and rotor/stator housing,
several critical factors must be considered to ensure optimal performance and longevity.

Insulation of Windings: The insulation of motor windings is essential for preventing short
circuits and enhancing the overall lifespan of the motor. High-quality insulation materials can
withstand thermal and electrical stresses, which are crucial in maintaining the integrity of the
windings under operational conditions. Proper insulation not only protects the windings but also
contributes to the efficiency of the motor by minimizing energy losses

Cooling Methods: Effective cooling mechanisms are vital for high-performance motors to
prevent overheating, which can lead to failure. While many motors utilize air cooling, advanced
designs may incorporate liquid cooling systems that provide superior heat dissipation. This is
particularly important in applications where motors operate under heavy loads or in high-
temperature environments 39

The choice of cooling method directly impacts the motor's efficiency and reliability, making it a
Power Transmission
Systems

40
 OVERVIEW
•Definition: Systems used to transmit mechanical power from one part of the system to
another. In electromechanical systems, this usually involves converting electrical power into
mechanical motion.
•Types of Power Transmission:
• Belt drives: Use belts and pulleys to transmit power, suitable for applications needing
flexibility in placement.
• Gear trains: Efficient for high-torque applications. Includes spur gears, helical gears, and
bevel gears.
• Chain drives: Common in machinery with high torque and speed, such as industrial
conveyor systems.
• Shafts and couplings: Transmit rotary motion between components of an
electromechanical system.

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 KEY CONCEPTS

•Efficiency: Power losses occur due to friction, material deformation, and misalignment. Gear
trains typically offer higher efficiency than belt drives but are more rigid.
•Load Transmission: Load matching is important to avoid power wastage and mechanical
wear.
•Safety Considerations: Include overload protection mechanisms like clutches and brakes.

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Drive Belts:
and Radii of larger and
𝐸
smaller pulley
Distance between the centres 𝛼 𝐹
of two pulleys. 𝛼
Total length of the belt 𝐽 𝛼 𝐾
: The angle formed between 𝑂1 𝑂2
the straight line connecting
the centers of the two pulleys 𝐻
and the horizontal line
between the centers is called 𝐺
the angle of inclination or
angle of belt inclination.
is important when designing 𝑥
and analyzing belt drives,
especially when the pulleys
are not aligned horizontally
(i.e., when they are at
different elevations or
mounted at an angle), as it 43

affects belt tension,

alignment, and power
The linear velocity of the belt is directly related to the angular speed of the driving pulley:

is the linear velocity of the belt.

​is the angular speed of the driving pulley.
​is the radius of the driving pulley.
Angular velocity
This equation shows that the linear velocity of the belt is the product of the angular speed of the
driving pulley and its radius.
Since the belt maintains the same linear velocity when transferring motion to the driven pulley,
we have

is the linear velocity of the belt.

​is the angular speed of the driven pulley.
​is the radius of the driven pulley.

The linear velocity remains constant along the belt, meaning that it is equal to the product of
the angular speed and radius of the driven pulley as well.
You can relate the angular speeds of the driving and driven pulleys using the radii of the pulleys:

44
 𝑇 1
If you imagine a belt running
around two pulleys:
Driving 𝐸 slack side Driven Pully
Pully
•The tight side is the belt
segment that is pulling the 𝛼 𝐹
driven pulley and is under high 𝛼
tension. 𝐽 𝛼 𝐾
•The slack side is the belt 𝑂1 𝑂2
segment returning to the driver
pulley, under lower tension as it 𝐻
has already completed
tight side
transmitting
Power which the force.
is the work done 𝐺 𝑇
per second is equal to : 1

𝑥
is the power transmitted (in Watts).
Tight side tension () is the force (in Newtons) on the belt when it is pulled tightly as it moves
from the driver to the driven pulley. Slack side tension (​) is the lower force on the belt as it
returns from the driven pulley back to the driver pulley.
is the linear velocity of the belt (in meters per second)
45
The angle of contact in radian
Driving
is the coefficient of friction between the belt and
Pully
pulley 𝜃
A B
In this equation, μ determines how much tension
difference between the tight and slack sides is
required to transmit power without slipping. A higher
μ (greater friction) allows for more effective power
transmission with less belt slippage. 𝑇2 𝑇1
However, there is also centrifugal tension as well:
Mass of the belt per unit length ()
Linear velocity of the belt in m/s
Radius of the pulley over which the belt runs 𝜃=180 ° − 2 𝛼
Centrifugal tension acting tangentially
So total tension in each side is:

•For a typical large driving pulley and small driven pulley setup: 46
•The wrap angle on the large driving pulley might be 180° (or π radians).
•The wrap angle on the small driven pulley might be 150° (or 2.62 radians).
Maximum Tension in the belt
Maximum safe stress in
width of the belt in
Thickness of the belt in

Condition for maximum power :

To find the maxima of equation we differentiate it and equate it to zero

For Maximum power

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Exercise:
A pulley is driven by a flat belt, the angle of lap ( angle of contact) being 120 degree. The belt is
( 100 mm) width by (6mm) thick and density (1000kg/m3). If the coefficient of friction is 0.3 and
the maximum stress in the belt is not exceeding ( 2MPa, find the greatest power which the belt
can transmit, and the corresponding speed of the belt

The belt velocity corresponding to the maximum tension and stress is:

We know that the Centrifugal tension is given at maximum stress

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Exercise:
An open belt running over two pulleys (240 mm) and (600 mm) diameters connect two parallel
shaft (3m) a prat and transmit (4kW) from the smaller pulley that rotates at ( 300 rpm).
Coefficient friction between the belt and the pulley is (0.3) and the safe working tension is (10
KN) per mm width.
Determine:
1. Belt tensions
2. Minimum width of the belt
3. Length of the belt required

By solving equation (1) and (2) yields and

per mm width

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Electrical Systems

50
Selecting an electric motor for a power transmission system requires a systematic approach,
considering the power requirements, speed, torque, and efficiency of the motor. Here's a step-by-
step guide, including calculations and considerations, based on the power transmission
system in your problem:

Let us consider the previous examples where belt drive transmitting

1. Determine Power Requirement

The first step is to establish the power required by the system, which you’ve already calculated
as 9.67 kW in the example

This value is the mechanical power that the motor needs to transmit to the system

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52
53
Now we have the power and the speed that motor need to deliver

54
55
56
Power Train Flow Summary:

1.Electric Motor → Drives the driver pulley.

2.Belt → Transmits power from the driver pulley to the driven pulley.

3.Driven Pulley → Rotates the output shaft.

4.Output Shaft → May transfer motion to a gearbox or directly to the load.

5.Gearbox or Couplings (Optional) → Modifies torque or speed, if required.

6.Load → Final component receiving mechanical power (e.g., a machine or conveyor).

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Power Supplies for
Electrical Systems

58
OVERVIEW
•AC vs. DC Power: AC power is typically used for large-scale power transmission, while DC
power is more common in battery-operated devices and some industrial applications.
•Rectifiers and Inverters:
• Rectifiers: Convert AC to DC. Key in systems like electric vehicles or industrial motor
drives.
• Inverters: Convert DC to AC, useful in solar energy systems and battery-powered
devices.
•Regulated Power Supplies: Ensure consistent voltage and current, which is critical in
sensitive electronic systems.

59
KEY CONCEPTS
•Power Rating: Motors and power systems need proper ratings to handle voltage, current,
and heat. Misrating leads to inefficiency or failure.
•Battery Systems: Emerging in modern applications like electric vehicles. Considers energy
density, efficiency, and thermal management.
•Switch-Mode Power Supplies (SMPS): Offer high efficiency, are compact, and are widely
used in power-hungry devices.
•Safety and Grounding: Ensure systems are properly grounded to avoid electrical hazards.

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