Sensors

Temperature

Temperature: Commonly measured/monitored using changes

in :
(a) Expansion or contraction of solids, liquids or gases

(b) Electrical resistance of conductors and semiconductors

(c) Thermoelectric e.m.f.s

Employed in different temperature control systems as -

Bimetallic strips
Resistance temperature detectors
Thermistors
Thermodiodes and Transistors
Thermocouples
 Bimetallic thermostat
Temperature
Bimetallic strips

Simple device - consists of two

different metal strips bonded
together into composite strip.

The metals have different

coefficients of expansion.

When the temperature

changes, the composite strip
bends into a curved strip (with
higher coefficient metal on the
outside of the curve).
 Temperature Bimetallic thermostat

Bimetallic strips

This deformation may be used as

a temperature controlled switch, as
in the simple thermostat.

This is commonly used in domestic

heating systems.

A small magnet enables the sensor

to exhibit hysteresis, so that the
switch contacts close at a different
temperature from that at which
they open.
 Temperature Bimetallic thermostat

Bimetallic strips

Different range of cantilever

bimetallic strip elements are
available.

Eg.- Portage Electric Products Inc.

It has bimetallic strip which also

carrys the current in addition to
supporting components to achieve
a number of different preset
temperatures ranging from 50 to
1300C with a tolerance of ± 50C.
 Temperature
Resistance temperature detectors

The resistance of most metals

increases in a reasonably linear way
with temperature (over a limited
temperature range).

For such a linear relationship;

Rt = R0(1 + αt)

where Rt is the resistance at a

temperature t (0C), R0 the resistance
at 00 C and constant α is the
temperature coefficient of resistance
for the metal.
 Temperature
Resistance temperature detectors
Construction:
Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) are simple resistive
elements in the form of coils of metal wires like platinum, nickel,
nickel-copper alloys, etc. (Pt being most widely used).

Thin-film platinum elements are often made by depositing the

metal on a suitable substrate.

Also made of Pt wire-wound elements (held by a high-

temperature glass adhesive) inside a ceramic tube.

RTD provide highly stable and reproducible responses over

long time period (response time ~ 0.5 to 5 s or more).
 Thermistors- common forms
Temperature
Thermistors
Thermistors are small pieces of
material made from mixtures of ;
metal oxides of chromium, cobalt, iron,
manganese and nickel.

These oxides are semiconductors.

This material is formed into various

types of element like, discs rods and
beads.
 Temperature
Thermistors
The resistance of conventional
metal-oxide thermistors
decreases in a very non-linear
manner with an increase in
temperature.

Such thermistors have negative

temperature coefficients
(NTCs).

Positive temperature coefficient

(PTC) thermistors are also
available.
 Temperature
Thermistors
The change in resistance per
degree change in temperature
for thermistors is considerably
larger than with metals.

The resistance-temperature
relationship for a thermistor
can be described using;

Rt = K eβ/t

where Rt is the resistance at

temperature t, with K and β
being constants.
 Temperature
Thermistors
Merits:
Thermisters are rugged and can be very small (enable
temperatures to be monitored at virtually a point).

Respond very rapidly (due to small size) to changes in

temperature.

Provide very large changes in resistance per degree change

in temperature.

Limitations:
Their main disadvantage is their non-linearity.
 Temperature
Thermistors
Applications:
Thermistors are used with the electronic systems for cars to
monitor air temperature, coolant temperature, etc.

PTC thermistors show considerable increase of resistance

(few 100 to several 1000 ohms) over a few degrees
temperature change.

Accordingly are used as thermal switches for motor protection

during overload.

The resistance change in thermistors can be converted into a

voltage change using a voltage divider circuit.
 Temperature
Thermo-diodes
A change in temperature of a p-n semiconductor junction
changes the mobility of the charge carriers in the material.

That is, the rate at which electrons and holes can diffuse
across the junction is affected due to temperature.

Therefore,
i) For a constant potential difference across p-n junction, the
current through the junction is a function of the temperature

or
ii) if we have a constant current through the junction, then the
voltage across it is a function of the temperature.
 Temperature
Thermo-diodes
Thus, a semiconductor diode can be used as a temperature
sensor.

Such a sensor (like thermistor) is compact. But has major

advantage of response being a linear function of temperature.

Thermodiodes employed as temperature sensors are made

as compact integrated circuits with the necessary signal
conditioning.

Eg.: LM3911 a complete sensor consists of internal

operational amplifier and provides a linear output of 10 mV/0C.
 Temperature
Thermo-transistors
For a thermotransistor (like thermodiode), the voltage across
the junction between the base and the emitter changes with
temperature.

This can be used as a measure of temperature.

Typically, two transistors with different collector currents are

employed and the difference in the base-emitter voltages
between them is used as a measure of temperature.

Such transistors can be combined with other circuit

components on a single chip to give a temperature sensor
with its associated signal conditioning.
 Temperature
Thermo-transistors
Such transistors can be combined with other circuit components
on a single chip to give a temperature sensor with its associated
signal conditioning.

Eg.: TI’s LM35 can give an output voltage

directly proportional to temperature.

It has sensitivity of ~10 mV/0C with a range

of -55 to + 1500C.

It can be used with an analogue-to-digital

converter (like ADC0804), to provide a
digital output suitable for a microprocessor.
 Temperature
Thermocouples
If two different metals are joined together, a potential difference
occurs across the junction.

This potential difference depends on;

i) the metals used. Thermocouple
ii) the temperature of the junction.

A thermocouple is a
complete circuit involving
two such junctions.
 Temperature
Thermocouples
If both junctions are at the same temperature there is no net
e.m.f.

Whenever, there is a difference in temperature between the two

junctions, there is an e.m.f. Thermocouple

The value of this e.m.f. “E”

depends on the two metals
concerned and the
temperatures “t” of both
junctions.
 Temperature
Thermocouples
Assuming one junction to be held at 00C, the e.m.f “E” can be
reasonably expressed as :

E = at + bt2

where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are constants for the metals concerned.

Commonly used thermocouples

are given reference letters. Thermocouple

Eg.: The iron-constantan

thermocouple is called a type “J”
thermocouple.
 Temperature
Thermocouples
Commonly used thermocouples and their typical sensitivities.
 Temperature
Thermocouple

Variation of
generated
e.m.f. with
temperature
for common
metal pairs.
 Temperature
Thermocouples

A thermocouple can have other metals in the circuit.

They will have no effect on the thermoelectric e.m.f. provided

all their junctions are at same temperature (known as the law
of intermediate metals)

Also, thermocouple can be used with the reference junction

at a temperature other than 00C.

Accordingly, a correction has to be applied for the standard

tables as it is done assuming a 00C junction.
 Temperature
Thermocouples
This correction is applied using the law of intermediate
temperatures as;

E(t,o) = E(t,I) + E(I,o)

The e.m.f. E(t,o) at temperature t when the cold junction is at

00C
equals

[The e.m.f. E(t,I) at the intermediate temperature I]

plus
[The e.m.f. E(I,o) at temperature I when the cold junction is at
00C].
 Temperature
Thermocouples
Maintaining one junction of a thermocouple at 00C, by
immersion in a mixture of ice/water is not always practical.

Instead, a compensation circuit can be incorporated based

on the law of intermediate temperatures.
A compensating
e.m.f. can be
provided by the
voltage drop
across a
resistance
thermometer
element.
Cold junction compensation
 Temperature
Thermocouples
The base-metal thermocouples, E, J, K and T, are relatively
cheap but deteriorate with age. They have accuracies ~ ±1 to
3%.

Noble-metal thermocouples like R, are more expensive but

more stable with longer life. They have accuracies ~ ± 1 % or
better.

Thermocouples are generally mounted in a sheath to give

them mechanical and chemical protection.

The type of sheath used depends on the temperatures at

which the thermocouple is to be used.
 Temperature
Thermopile
In some cases the sheath is packed with a mineral that is a
good conductor of heat and a good electrical insulator.

The response time of an unsheathed thermocouple is very

fast as compared to with sheath (upto few s).

Sometimes, a group of thermocouples are connected in

series (10 or more hot junctions sensing the temperature).

The e.m.f. produced by each gets added together. This

arrangement is known as “Thermopile”.
 Light sensors
Photodiodes
Photodiodes are semiconductor junction diodes which are
connected into a circuit in reverse bias, so as to provide a
very high resistance.

With no incident light, the reverse current is almost negligible,

termed as “dark current”.
 Light sensors
Photodiodes

When light falls on the

junction, extra hole-electron
pairs are produced.

This results in increased

reverse current and a drop
in diode resistance.

The reverse current is very nearly proportional to the

intensity of the light.
 Light sensors

Photodiodes

For Eg., the current in the absence of light with a reverse

bias of 3V could be 25 μA.

When illuminated by 25000 lumens/m2 the current rises to

375 μA.

Then the resistance of the device with no light is 120 kOhm

and with light is 8 kOhm.

A photodiode can thus he used as a variable resistance

device controlled by the light incident on it.
Light sensors
Photodiodes

Photodiodes have a very fast response to light.

A sample application of such a photodiode: as a light

sensor with a modern car.

Where it is used to detect driving situations such as

twilight, driving in and out of a tunnel, etc., and provide a
signal to adjust the car's low beam and rear lights.
Light sensors
Phototransistors

It consists of a light-sensitive, collector-base p-n junction.

When no incident light, there is a very small collector-to-

emitter current.

When light is incident, a base current is produced that is

directly proportional to the light intensity.

This base current leads to the production of a collector

current which is used as a measure of the light intensity.
Light sensors
Phototransistors Photo Darlington.

Phototransistors, often available as

integrated packages with the signal
conditioning electronics.

Phototransistors are connected in a

Darlington arrangement with a
conventional transistor.

Because this Darlington arrangement gives a higher

current gain, the device gives a much greater collector
current for a given light intensity.
Light sensors
Photoresistor

A resistor whose resistance depends on the intensity of the

light falling on it.

Resistance decreases linearly as the light intensity

increases.

Eg.: Cadmium sulphide photoresistor is most responsive

to light having wavelengths shorter than about 515 nm.

Cadmium selinide photoresistor is most responsive to

light having wavelengths less than about 700 nm.
Light sensors
Applications

An array of light sensors is often used in a small space to

determine the variations of light intensity across that space.

Eg.: Charge-coupled device (CCD) used in the digital

camera capture the image being photographed and convert
it into a digital form.

A CCD is a light-sensitive arrangement of many small light-

sensitive cells termed pixels.

These cells are basically a p-layer of silicon, separated by a

depletion layer from an n-type silicon layer.
Light sensors
Applications

When exposed to light, individual cells becomes electrically

charged.

This charge is then converted into an 8-bit digital number by

electronic circuitry .

During photograph, the digital camera electronic circuitry 1st

discharges the light-sensitive cells and activates an
electromechanical shutter to expose the cells to the image.

Thus, the image is captured by reading the 8-bit charge

value for each cell.
Light sensors
Applications

But these p-n cells are colour blind and we need colour
photographs.

Hence, the light is passed through a colour filter matrix

before striking the cells.

This allows just green light to fall on some cells, blue on

others and red light on others.

Then, a colour image can be created later by taking into

account, the output from neighbouring cells, .
Selectlon of sensors

In selecting a sensor for a particular application there are a

number of factors that need to be considered:
1 The nature of the measurement required, e.g. the variable
to be measured, its nominal value, the range of values, the
accuracy required, the required speed of measurement, the
reliability required, and the environmental conditions under
which the measurement is to be made.
2 The nature of the output required from the sensor, this
determining the signal conditioning requirements in order to
give suitable output signals from the measurement.
3 Then the identification of possible sensors, taking into
account such factors as their range, accuracy, linearity,
speed of response, reliability, maintainability, life, power
supply requirements, ruggedness, availability and cost.
The selection of sensors cannot be taken in isolation from a
END
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 Mechatronics Systems
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SENSORS

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 SIGNAL CONDITIONING

– Used on low-level signals (i.e. thermocouples)

– Maximizes use of Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) range and
increases accuracy
– Increases Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)
Noise
Instrumentation
Amplifier

+
_ ADC
Lead Wires

Low-Level Signal External

Amplifier DAQ Device

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Your Signal

DAQ Device
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Cable

Terminal Block

DAQ Hardware turns your PC into a

measurement and automation system

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Pc Board CAN BUS

Serial/paralell
GPIB

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