Chapter Outline

2. Introduction to Measurement System

2.1 Methods of measurement
2.2 Generalized Measurement systems

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2.1 Measurement Methods
• Measurement employs one or more well-defined
methods
•There are Seven Measurement categories
1. Direct,
2. Differential,
3. Indirect,
4. Ratio,
5. Reciprocity,
6. Substitution and
7. Transfer

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2.1 Measurement Methods …
1. Direct measurement involves direct contact
with the measurand and read a value from an
indicating device.
– Very common in physical quantities like mass, length,
…, but less common compared to indirect one
– E.g:
• Reading the alternating current voltage (ACV) from a
multimeter
• A temperature from a liquid-in-glass thermometer

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2.1 Measurement Methods …
1.Direct measurement
Classified into three
1. Primary measurement- any physical parameter is compared
with reference standard
– Matching lengths or weights
• It provides subjective information for the observer
2. Secondary measurement – involves only one translation on the
quantity under measurement
e.g measuring pressure in a container may not be observable
• Primary signal is transmitted to transducer that translates pressure into
length on the gage
3. Tertiary measurement involve two translation
e.g in bourdon tube pressure, small deflection is amplified
using rack and pinion arrangement for better display 4
2.1 Measurement Methods …
2. Differential measurement - comparing unknown
measurand with a known quantity (standard) such
that when their values are equal, the difference
indication read zero (null).
E.g
• Measuring a weight using a two-pan balance
• Determining a resistance using a current cmparator

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2.1 Measurement Methods …
3. Indirect measurement - non targeted measurand to determine
value of targeted measurand,
– Uses some transducing device that convert a quantity into
analogues signal which is then processed by intermediate
devices and displayed on output devices as known function of
the input
– An empirical relationship is established between measurement
and result
E.g:
• Calculating a current value by measuring voltage
• Determining a temperature by measuring the resistance of a platinum
resistance thermometer
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2.1 Measurement Methods …
4. Ratio measurement - comparing an unknown
measurand with a known quantity (standard) to
determine how many divisions of the unknown
measurand can comprise within the known quantity.
5. Reciprocity measurement - use of a transfer
function(s) (relationships) to compare two or more
measurement devices subject to the same measurand.
E.g
• Determining sensitivity of a microphone via response of another ones

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2.1 Measurement Methods …
6. Substitution measurement using known device or
artifact (standard) to establish a measurand value
after which known measurement device is removed
and an unknown device is replaced to see its response
7. Transfer measurement employing an intermediate
device to convey (transfer) a known measurand value
to an unknown measurement device or artifact. E. G
• Determining AC voltage using a AC/DC transfer device,
• Caliper

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2.2 Generalized Measurement systems
• Measurement devices represent the technical and
instrumental realization of measuring methods
and physical principles based on measurement
theory
Measurement system elements:
– Measurement personnel
– Calibration standards
– Measurement devices
– Measurement environment
– Measurement methodology
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2.2 Measurement System ….

Fig… Block diagram of generalized measuring system

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• Many of the mechanical sensors (commonly serve as
primary transducer) transduce the input to
displacement, many of the electrical sensors
(commonly serve as secondary transducer) change
displacement to an electrical output.
• In addition to the inherent compatibility of the
mechano-electric transducer combination, electrical
elements have several important relative advantages.
1. Amplification or attenuation can be easily obtained.
2. Mass-inertia effects are minimized
3. The effects of frictions are minimized
4. Output power of any magnitude can be provided
5. Remote indication or recording is feasible
6. The transducers can often be miniaturized

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 2.2 Measurement System ….
More components in a measurement system

Amplification and Conditioning

Fig. Functional elements of an instrument or a measurement system.

The response analysis can be carried out to each independent block

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2.2 Measurement System ….
Sensor - the part of a measurement system that
responds directly to the physical variable being
measured, two classes
1. Passive sensors do not add energy as part of the
measurement process, but may remove energy in their
operation, ie energy is converted to measurable quantity
– e.g a thermocouple, which converts a physical
temperature into a voltage signal
2. Active sensors add energy to the measurement
environment as part of measurement process
– E.g. a radar or sonar (sound navigation ranging), where
actively out-sended radio (radar) or acoustic (sonar)
waves reflect off of some object and thus measures its
range from the sensor
Some Sensors and Transducers
• The first contact that a measuring system has with the
measurand is through the input sample accepted by the
detecting element of the first stage.
• The detector senses info input, and then transduces or
converts it to a more convenient form or output.
Classification of first-stage device
Class I. First-stage element used as detector only
Class II. First-stage element used as detector and single
transducer
Class III. First-stage element used as detector with two
transducer stage

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 2.2 Measurement System ….
Sensor Fusion (uniting of sensors)
• Two or more sensors combined are used to observe
the environment and their output signals provide a
single enhanced measurement
Instruments

SENSOR
X1 1 S1

SENSOR SENSOR
X2 2 S2 FUSION

Physical Process
SENSOR
X3 3 S3

Examples:
1. Sensor output relation to the ambient temp is taken account
during the measurements
2. Image synthesis where radar, optical, and infrared images can
be combined into a single enhanced image 18
 2.2 Measurement System ….
Analog and Digital Sensors
• Analog sensors - provide a signal that is continuous in both its magnitude
and its temporal (time) or spatial (space) content

Thermocouple as an analog sensor

• Digital sensors - provide direct digital measurand discrete values.

A rotating shaft (analog) with a revolution
counter (digital) . The voltage spike
amplitude is set to activate counter and is
not related to the shaft rotational speed.

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Data can be sent either in serial or parallel format
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 Variable-Resistance Transducer Element

• Many sensors are based on changes in these factors; examples :

I. Sliding-contact devices and potentiometers, in which L changes
II. Resistance strain-gages, in which L, A, and ρ change and
III. Thermistors, photoconductive light detectors, piezoresistive strain-
gages, and resistance temperature detector, in which ρ changes.

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 Sliding-Contact Devices
• Sliding-contact resistive transducers convert a
mechanical displacement input into electrical output,
either voltage or current. This change accomplished by
changing effective length L of the conductor.
• Device for sensing relatively large displacement.

Fig – variable resistance consisting of

wire and movable contactor or brush
Fig – angular motion variable resistance, or
potentiometer. a) wire wound, b) carbon composition
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Thermistors
• Thermistor = thermal sensitive resistor
• Thermistors are composed of sintered ceramic
semiconductor and metal oxides - manganese, cobalt,
copper and iron
• These device have two basic application:
1. As temperature-detecting elements used for the
purpose of measurement or control, and
2. As electric-power sensing devices wherein the
thermistor temperature –and hence resistance –are a
function of the power being dissipated by the device.
It is useful for measuring radio frequency power.

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Thermocouple
• When two dissimilar metals are in contact, electromotive force
(EMF) exists whose magnitude is a function of several factors,
including temperature.
• Junction of this sort to measure temperature, are thermocouple.
• Often the junction are formed by twisting and welding together

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Pressure Transducers
• It convert a measured pressure in to a
mechanical or electrical signal.
• The transducer is a hybrid sensor-transducer
i. The primary sensor is usually an elastic element
that deforms or deflects under pressure
ii. A secondary transducer element converts the
elastic element deflection into a readily
measurable signal such as an electrical voltage or
mechanical rotation of a pointer.

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Force Measurement
Load cells
i. Strain gauge Load cells – when an applied force
deflects or strains the block/ material, the strain is
transduced to electrical resistance change, which
can be measured by the strain gage

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Force Measurement …
ii. Piezoelectric Load cells – some materials generate electrical
charge when subjected to mechanical strain or change
dimensions when subjected to voltage

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Force Measurement …
Proving ring

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 2.2 Measurement System ….
Analog Readout Instruments
• Provides an output indication that is
continuous and analogous to the
behavior of the measurand, e.g
– Deflection of pointer on a scale
– Intensity of light beam or sound
wave
Digital readout instrument
• Provides discrete output indication
• Many combine features of an analog
with a digital readout,