Sampling

Sampling
The process of selecting the right individuals, objects, as representatives
for the entire population is known as sampling
Population
The population refers to the entire group of people, events, or things of
interest that the researcher wishes to investigate.
e.g.
If an organizational consultant is interested in studying the effects of a
four‐day work week on the white‐collar workers in a telephone company
in Ireland, then all white‐collar workers in that company will make up the
population
Element
An element is a single member of the population. If 1000 blue‐collar workers in a
particular organization happen to be the population of interest to a researcher,
each blue‐collar worker therein is an element.
Sample
A sample is a subset of the population. It comprises some members selected
from it
e.g. If 200 members are drawn from a population of 1000 blue‐ collar workers,
these 200 members form the sample for the study.
Subject
A subject is a single member of the sample, just as an element is a single
member of the population.
If 200 members from the total population of 1000 blue‐collar workers form the
sample for the study, then each blue‐collar worker in the sample is a subject.
THE SAMPLING PROCESS
1. Define the population.

2. Determine the sample frame (The sampling frame is a (physical) representation

of all the elements in the population from which the sample is drawn. The
university registry containing a listing of all students, faculty, administrators, and
support staff in the university during a particular academic year or semester. The
telephone directory is also frequently used as a sampling frame)

3. Determine the sampling design (Probability/non-probability)

4. Determine the appropriate sample size.
5. Execute the sampling process (e.g. pg#241)
 Probability sampling
• When elements in the population have a known, nonzero chance of
being chosen as subjects in the sample, we resort to a probability
sampling design.

Types
• Unrestricted (simple random sampling)
• Restricted (complex probability sampling) in nature.
Unrestricted or simple random sampling
Every element in the population has a known and equal chance of being
selected as a subject.
Let us say there are 1000 elements in the population, and we need a
sample of 100. Suppose we were to drop pieces of paper in a hat, each
bearing the name of one of the elements, and draw 100 of those from
the hat with our eyes closed.
• Generating random numbers in excel

Restricted or complex probability sampling:

The five most common complex probability sampling designs –
systematic sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster sampling, area
sampling, and double sampling
The systematic sampling: design involves drawing every nth element in
the population starting with a randomly chosen element between 1 and
n.

e.g.

If we wanted a sample of 35 households from a total population of 260

houses in a particular locality, then we could sample every seventh
house starting from a random number from 1 to 7. Let us say that the
random number was 7, then houses numbered 7, 14, 21, 28, and so on,
would be sampled until the 35 houses were selected.
Stratified random sampling
Stratified random sampling, as its name implies, involves a process of
stratification or segregation, followed by random selection of subjects
from each stratum
• Researcher divides the population into homogeneous populations
called strata based on the specific characteristics ( age, gender, race).
It is used for comparative studies.
e.g. you want to have an opinion of male and female students
regarding facilities available at university.

Types
• Proportionate
• Disproportionate stratified random sampling
Proportionate
Members represented in the sample from each stratum proportionate
to the total number of elements in the respective strata
The number of subjects from each stratum would now be altered, while
keeping the sample size unchanged
Disproportionate
The number of subjects from each stratum would be altered, while
keeping the sample size unchanged
Cluster sampling: the target population is first divided into clusters.
Then, a random sample of clusters is drawn and for each selected
cluster either all the elements or a sample of elements are included in
the sample
Area sampling: In this case, clusters consist of geographic areas such as
countries, city blocks, or particular boundaries within a locality.

Location plans for retail stores, advertisements focused specifically on

local populations, and TV and radio programs beamed at specific areas
could all use an area sampling design to gather information on the
interests, attitudes, predispositions, and behaviors of the local area
people
Single-stage:
The division of the population into convenient clusters, randomly choosing the
required number of clusters as sample subjects, and investigating all the
elements in each of the randomly chosen clusters.

Multi-stage:
sampling can also be done in several stages
• For example, in a study involving hospitals, 30 hospitals are randomly
selected from a state, and from each of those hospitals, three wards are
randomly polled.
Double sampling
A sampling design where initially a sample is used in a study to collect
some preliminary information of interest, and later a subsample of this
primary sample is used to examine the matter in more detail, is called
double sampling.

For example,
a structured interview might indicate that a subgroup of the
respondents has more insight into the problems of the organization.
These respondents might be interviewed again and asked additional
questions.
NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING
• In nonprobability sampling designs, the elements in the population do
not have any probabilities attached to their being chosen as sample
subjects. This means that the findings from the study of the sample
cannot be confidently generalized to the population.

• convenience sampling
• purposive sampling
Convenience sampling: Refers to the collection of information from members
of the population who are conveniently available to provide it.
e.g. companies distribute pamphlets and ask questions at a mall or on a
crowded street with randomly selected participants.

Purposive sampling
The sampling here is confined to specific types of people who can provide the
desired information, either because they are the only ones who have it, or
they conform to some criteria set by the researcher. This type of sampling
design is called purposive sampling

• Judgment sampling
• Quota sampling
Judgment sampling
• judgment sampling design is used when a limited number or category of people
have the information that is sought
• Judgment sampling may curtail the generalizability of the findings, due to the
fact that we are using a sample of experts who are conveniently available to us
• Researcher himself defines a criteria of people who he needs for his study and
who are easily available for interviews and surveys.

• E.g. A pharmaceutical company wants to trace the effects of a new drug on

patients with specific health problems (muscular dystrophy, sickle cell anemia,
rheumatoid arthritis, etc.). It then contacts such individuals and, with a group of
voluntarily consenting patients, tests the drug. This is a judgment sample
because data are collected from appropriate special groups.
Quota sampling:
Quota sampling, a second type of purposive sampling, ensures that certain groups are
adequately represented in the study through the assignment of a quota
• Quota sampling can be considered a form of proportionate stratified sampling, in which a
predetermined proportion of people are sampled from different groups, but on a
convenience basis.

For instance, it may be surmised that the work attitude of blue‐collar workers in an
organization is quite different from that of white‐ collar workers. If there are 60% blue‐collar
workers and 40% white‐collar workers in this organization, and if a total of 30 people are to be
interviewed to find the answer to the research question, then a quota of 18 blue‐ collar
workers and 12 white‐collar workers will form the sample, because these numbers represent
60% and 40% of the sample size. The first 18 conveniently available blue‐collar workers and
12 white‐collar workers will be sampled according to this quota.
60% of 30(sample size)= 18
40% of 30(sample size)= 12
 WHEN CERTAIN SAMPLING DESIGNS
WOULD BE APPROPRIATE
• Simple random sampling This sampling design is best when the
generalizability of the findings to the whole population is the main objective
of the study.
When cost is a primary consideration (i.e., resources are limited), and the
number of elements in the population is very large and/or geographically
dispersed, the simple random sampling design may not be the most desirable,
because it could become quite expensive

Stratified random sampling

This sampling design is a good choice when differentiated information is
needed regarding various strata within the population
Systematic sampling
If the sampling frame is large, and a listing of the elements is conveniently
available in one place (as in the telephone directory, company payroll, chamber
of commerce listings, etc.), then a systematic sampling procedure will offer the
advantages of ease and quickness in developing the sample

Cluster sampling
This sampling design is most useful when a heterogeneous group is to be
studied at one time

Double sampling
This design provides added information at minimal additional expenditure.
• Convenience sampling
This nonprobability design, which is not generalizable at all, is used at
times to obtain some “quick” information.

judgment sampling
A judgment sampling design is used where the collection of “specialized
informed inputs” on the topic area researched is vital, and the use of
any other sampling design would not offer opportunities to obtain the
specialized information