TISSUE

Tissue
 Tissue is a group of cells having similar structure and function.
 In plants and animals groups of cells called tissues carry out

specific functions.
 Eg :- In human beings the cells of the muscular tissue contract and

relax and help in movements.

 In plants the cells of the vascular tissue conduct water and
food

from one part of the plant to the other.

Plant tissues
Plant tissues are of two main types. They are Meristematic tissues
and
Permanent tissues.

i) Meristematic tissues :- are of three types. They are Apical

meristematic
tissues, Intercalary meristematic tissues and Lateral meristematic
tissues.

ii) Permanent tissues :- are of two types . They are Simple permanent
tissues
and Complex permanent tissues.
Simple permanent tissues - Parenchyma, Collenchyma and
Sclerenchyma.
Complex permanent tissues - Xylem and phloem.
 a) Meristematic tissue
 Meristematic tissues are found in the growing regions of the plant like the tips
of root, stem and branches.
 They divide continuously and help in the growth of the plant.
 The cell consist of cytoplasm and single large nucleus.
 Meristematic cells are compactly arranged, no intercellular space.

They are of three types.

i) Apical meristematic tissues - are present in the tips of stems and roots.
They help in the growth of stems and roots.
ii) Lateral meristematic tissues - are present in in the sides of stems and
roots. They help to increase the girth of the stems and roots.
iii) Intercalary meristematic tissues - are present at the base of leaves
and
internodes and help in the growth of those parts.
Functions of meristematic tissue
 It acts as a parent tissue from which other tissues develop.
 It takes part in the growth by formation of new cells.
 Plants continue to produce new leaves, branches of stem,
roots, flowers, fruits and root hairs.
 Injury of plants are healed up by the formation of new cells
by meristems.
 The plant shoots bent by wind are made to grow upright
b) Permanent tissues

Permanent tissues are formed from meristematic
tissues.
 They do not divide and have permanent shape and
size.
 The process of taking up a definite shape, size,
structure and function is called differentiation .
 They differentiate into different types of permanent
tissues.
i) Simple permanent tissues :- are made up of one
type of cells. They are of three types
 Parenchyma,
a) Parenchyma
 It consists of loosely packed thin walled cells.
 It has intercellular spaces.
 Some parenchyma cells in leaves contain
chloroplast(chlorenchyma) and prepare food by photosynthesis.
 Some parenchyma cells have large air cavities(aerenchyma)
which help the plants to float on water.

Shape – oval spherical or isometric (equal on all sides)

Location – in all parts of the plant like stem, root, leaves, flower etc.,
 Functions of parenchyma cell

 It acts as a primary support to the stem.

 It serves as a packing tissue- fills the space between
other tissues and maintains the shape and firmness of
the plant.
 It serves as a storage tissue – stores and assimilate food.
 Presence of intercellular space allows the movement of
gases and gaseous exchange.
b) Collenchyma
 It consists of living cells.
 Intercellular spaces are little.
 Shape -elongated but appear oval or circular.
 Location – below the epidermis of stalks,
and leaf midribs .
 Functions of collenchyma
 Provides mechanical strength and flexibility.
 Allows growth and elongation.
 Stores food.
 Contains chloroplast and take part in photosynthesis.
Sclerenchyma
 Cells are dead cells.
 Devoid of protoplasm.
 Cells are closely packed without intercellular space.
 Cell wall is thick ( made up of lignin).
 The cell walls contain lignin a chemical substance
which act like cement and hardens them.
 It gives strength and hardness to the plant parts.

Location – around vascular bundles, inside xylem &

phloem , hard covering of seeds and nuts, husk of
coconut , grit of apple and pear.
Functions of sclerenchyma
 Provides mechanical strength.
 forms covering around seeds and nuts.
 commercial purpose – jute , coconut, hemp
PROTECTIVE TISSUE

 It is an outer coating of cells that covers plant parts

 Provides protection.

Types

1. Epidermis

2. Cork
 Epidermis
 Location: outermost layer of leaves, flowers, stem and roots.
 Cells are elongated, flattened with no intercellular spaces.
 it is covered by cutilce (cutin): water proof layer.
 cutilcle varies in thickness
 Functions: Protects the plant from dessication and
infections. reduces water loss, prevents entry of pathogens.
 trichomes are present on the aerial surfaces of the
epidermis.
 in roots: uncutinised epidermis is called epiblema. these
give rise to root hairs - help in water absorption.
Cork (phellem)
 Epidermis undergoes changes (old) - secondary meristem called phellogen/ cork cambium
replaces epidermis.
 cells of cork cambium are rectangular, their protoplasts - vacuolated contains tanin and
chloroplats
 cork cambium forms cork (phellem) on both side i.e outer side and the secondary cortex or the
phelloderm on the inner side.
 the cells on the outer side becomes the cork (thick and several layers) i.e bark.
 Cells of cork are dead no protoplasm filled with resins and tanins,compactly arranged with
intercellular spaces.
 walls of cork are thick deposited by organic substance : suberin (fatty substance).
 suberin is immpermeable to water and gases.
 Functions:
 prevents dessication, infections and mechanical injury.
 does not catch fire easily, used as insulators, shock - absorbers, linoleum (used in floorings),
sports goods (shuttle cocks, cricket balls, wooden paddles for tt, etc)
 commerical cork is obtained from oak tress - S. Europe and N. America (Quercus suber)
Cork
Complex permanent tissue
 It contains more than one type of cells having a common origin. They coordinate together for a
common function.
 Xylem and Phloem are both conducting tissue together – vascular tissue. Forming vascular
bundle.
XYLEM
 Gr. Xylos – wood. Mechanical and vascular tissue (conducting tissue).
 4 types : 1. tracheids, 2. vessels or trachea, 3. xylem parenchyma (living), 4.
xylem sclerenchyma (fibre).
 PHLOEM
 Gk. Phloos – bark. 4 types
 1. Sieve tubes, 2. Companion cells, 3. Phloem parenchyma, 4. Phloem
fibres(dead).
Functions:

Xylem:
 Conducts minerals and water (upward)
 Tracheids, vessels, fibres (lignified walls) – mechanical support.

Phloem:
 Conducts food – leaves to storage organs to growing plant body.
 ANIMAL TISSUE
 Animal tissues are grouping of animal cells that
are specialised to perform particular functions.
 The working of an animal body is coordinated by
tissues and organs formed from them.
 For example - In breathing inhalation provides
oxygen to blood inside lungs. Carbon dioxide
contained in the blood passes into air to be
exhaled. Blood carries oxygen and food to all
cells.
Blood is a connective tissue
Types of Animal Tissue
On the basis of their structure and functions,
animal tissues are of four types –
 Epithelial tissue
 Connective tissue
 Muscular tissue
 Nervous tissue
1. Epithelial Tissue
 It covers all external & internal surfaces of animal
body.
 Also called as covering tissue.
 It is the simplest animal tissue.
 Intercellular spaces are nearly absent.
 It rests over an extra -cellular layer of collagen
fibres & dense matrix called basement membrane
Basement membrane connects epithelial tissue to
the underlying connective tissue.
Types of epithelium tissue

Arrangements of Layers Cell Shape Function

1. Simple epithelium 1. Squamous 1. Sensory epithelium

epithelium

2. Stratified 2. Cuboidal epithelium 2. Germinal

epithelium epithelium
On the basis of Arrangement of Layers

 Simple epithelium – The tissue is made of

single layer of cells

 Stratified or compound epithelium - The

tissue consists of more than one layer of cells .

On the basis of cell shapes
1. Squamous Epithelium
 Also called as pavement epithelium.
 The cells are thin, flat, polygonal with central
bulgings having flat nuclei.
 It can be simple or stratified.
 Simple squamous epithelium -Located in lung
alveoli, bowmans capsule, blood capillaries etc.,
 Stratified epithelium – buccal cavity, pharynx,
oesophagus, skin
Functions

Protection

Ultrafiltration – bowmans capsule

Exchange of materials – blood capillaries
Exchange of gases- alveoli of lungs
Abrasion – protection against mechanical
stress by sloughing off the outermost layer
2. Cuboidal epithelium
 Made up of compactly arranged cells.
 Two types- simple and stratified

Location
 Simple cuboidal epithelium – germinal layer of sex
organs, thyroid vesicles, salivary and pancreatic ducts
 Stratified cuboidal epithelium- inner surface of large
ducts e.g., salivary, pancreatic, sweat, mammary gland
ducts.
functions

I. Secretion (salivary ducts)

II. Diffusion (exchange of gases in bronchioles, kidney

water &salts)tects

III. Absorption (large surface area which increases

absorption & secretion)

IV. Formation of gametes

V. Protects from damage by abrasion, foreign particles.

3. Columnar Epithelium
 It is tall columnar or pillar like compactly arranged cells.
 Nucleus is oval and lies near the base.
 It bears a finger-like projections called microvilli.
 May be simple or stratified .
 Modified columnar epithelium is called pseudostratified
epithelium.
Location
1. Simple columnar epithelium- lining layer of stomach,
intestine and their glands.
2. Stratified columnar epithelium – covering layer of
epiglottis.
3. Pseudostratified epithelium – upper respiratory
tract and genital tracts

FUNCTIONS

I. To absorb nutrients (intestine)

II. Secrete mucus (goblet cells)

III. Provides protection to underlying tissues

On the basis of specific function

1. Sensory or Neuroepithelium

2. Germinal epithelium

3. Ciliated epithelium

4. Glandular epithelium
Sensory or Neuroepithelium

 It consists of columnar cells with sensory hair on the free surface

 The epithelium picks up the stimuli with the help of the hair. Eg: olfactory
epithelium
Germinal epithelium
 Occurs in gonads.
 Consists of cuboidal cells.
 Forms gametes
Ciliated epithelium

 Columnar and cuboidal epithelium with cilia.

 Ciliated cuboidal epithelium occurs in sperm ducts, uriniferous
tubules.
 Ciliated columnar epithelium – lining of respiratory tracts and
oviducts.
Glandular epithelium
 Epithelium is infolded to form multicellular glands.
 Glands secrete chemical substances (sweat, oil, enzymes, hormones)
2. Connective Tissue
 It is the most abundant tissue of the animal body.
 The matrix is generally jelly- like, fluid or rigid and solid.
 On the basis of nature of matrix connective tissue is of three
types,

 Loose or Dense matrix- connective tissue proper

 Solid matrix – skeletal tissue

 Fluid matrix - vascular tissue

 Fibroblasts: ground substances and fibres

 Collagen fiber is the fiber in the extracellular matrix of connective tissues characterized by
being elongated and made up of collagen glycoproteins. It is typically arranged in branching
bundles of indefinite length. It is a strong insoluble fiber. It occurs in the skin, tendon,
ligaments, bone, and cartilage.

 Yellow fibres are made up of elastin protein, they are thinner, less numerous and branched
and are pale yellow in colour. They are very elastic and remain stretched due to tension in
areolar tissue.

White fibres are made up of collagen protein. They are most abundant fibrous elements of
areolar and other connective tissues. They are long, unbranched fibres of a soluble and
shining collagen protein.

Reticular fibres are made up of reticulin protein. They are delicate, freely branching and
 A fibroblast is a type of cell that contributes to the formation of connective tissue, a
fibrous cellular material that supports and connects other tissues or organs in the body.
Fibroblasts secrete collagen proteins that help maintain the structural framework of
tissues. They also play an important role in healing wounds.

 mast cell, tissue cell of the immune system of vertebrate animals. Mast cells mediate
inflammatory responses such as hypersensitivity and allergic reactions. They are
scattered throughout the connective tissues of the body, especially beneath the
surface of the skin, near blood vessels and lymphatic vessels, within nerves,
throughout the respiratory system, and in the digestive and urinary tracts.
 Mast cells play an important role in how the immune system responds to certain

bacteria and parasites and they help control other types of immune responses. They

contain chemicals such as histamine, heparin, cytokines, and growth factors. They

release these chemicals during allergic reactions and certain immune responses.

 Immunocytes: A type of immune cell that makes large amounts of a specific antibody.

Plasma cells develop from B cells that have been activated. A plasma cell is a type of

white blood cell. Also called plasmacyte.

a)Areolar tissue
 it is a simple tissue, lose and cellular connective tissue.
 It contains semi-fluid jelly-like matrix, white collagen, yellow elastin,
reticular fibres, fibroblasts, mast cells, plasma cells, macrophages
and immunocytes.
Location – around blood vessels, below the subcutaneous tissue.
Functions
 The areolar connective tissue functions mainly in binding organs
and their components together providing elasticity when stretched.
 The areolar connective tissue also supplies blood to the nearby
epithelial tissue
 Provides materials to repair injury.
 Provides covering over nerves, muscles and blood vessels.
Functions
 The areolar connective tissue functions
mainly in binding organs and their
components together providing elasticity
when stretched.
 The areolar connective tissue also supplies
blood to the nearby epithelial tissue
 Provides materials to repair injury.
 Provides covering over nerves, muscles and
blood vessels.
b) Adipose Tissue
 Aggregation of fat cells
 Round or oval shape
 Largedroplet of fat filled cells, arranged in lobules
separated by collagen and elastin fibres
 These separated partitions carry blood vessels of lobules.
 Occurrence: below skin, between internal organs.
b) Adipose Tissue
 Specialised to store fat
 Fat is stored inside cells called adipocytes.
 It contains soft jelly-like matrix, living cells.
Location – subcutaneous region, cushion around eyes,
heart, kidney, blood vessels, inside yellow bone marrow.
Function –
1. Storage of fat
2. Insulation
3. Shock absorption
4. Body shape
 c) Tendon (Dense, regular coonective tissue)

 Itis a small cord like dense white fibrous connective

tissue
 Quantity of matrix is comparatively small .
 Tendon joins skeletal muscle to bone
 Ithelps in moving the bone on contraction & relaxation of
the muscles.
Tendons
 Strong, inelastic, great strength with limited flexibility.
 Consists of parallel bundles of collagen fibres, rows of fibroblasts
(tendocytes).
 Collagen fibres are bounded by areolar tissue.
d) Ligament
 It is a cord like dense yellow fibrous connective tissue with
high elasticity.
 It is made up of yellow elastin fibres.
 Ligament binds a bone to another bone.
 Because of its elasticity ligament allows bending &
rotation movements over a joint.
 When its overstretched it causes sprain.
Ligaments
 Consists of some elastic and many collagen fibres bound together by areolar
connective tissue.
 Fibreoblasts are compressed in between regular rows of fibres.
 Ligaments strengthen the joint and permits normal movement but prevent over-
flexing and extension.
Skeletal tissue
 Matrix is solid and living cells occur in fluid filled
spaces called lacunae.
 It provides support and protection.
 It forms endoskeleton.
 Skeletal tissues are of two types - cartilage , bone
.
 i) Cartilage
 it is firm but flexible supportive connective tissue.
 Solid matrix is has fluid filled lacunae having living cells called
chondrocytes.
 Chondrocytes secrete chondrin made up of protein-sugar complex.
 outer covering of cartilage called perichondrium, where blood supply is
restricted
 Chondroblasts occurs below the perichondrium.

Location – nasal septum, pinna, epiglottis, larynx(voice box), rings of trachea

and bronchi, ends of ribs, intervertebral discs and tips of several bones.
i) Cartilage
 Specialised connective tissue – compact and less vascular.
 Has widely spaced out cells.
 Matrix- proteins, slightly hardened by calcium and salts.
 Matrix is produced by chondrocytes – solid, cheese-like, firm slightly
elastic – flexibility
 Chondrocytes multiply by mitosis and help in internal growth of
cartilage. Hence, it is capable of continuous and rapid growth.
Functions

 Provides support and flexibility to various body parts.

 Prevents frictional wear and tear of bone tips

 Intervertebral discs of cartilage function as cushions

against stresses
 Bone
 It is solid, rigid, strong and non-flexible skeletal tissue.
 It is porous, highly vascular, mineralized, hard rigid.
 Matrix - proteins (osteonectin, osteocalcin, proteoglycan & collagen).
 Rich in salts, Ca, Mg, P, carbonates of Ca & Mg (hydroxyapatite).
 Minerals – make hardness, matrix is in the form of thin concentric rings
called lamella.
 Bone cells – osteoblasts or osteocytes : present between lamella in fluid
filled space called lacunae.
 Lacunae communicates with network of canals called canaliculi – receives
food , oxygen and eliminates water.
 It consists of a solid matrix filled lacunae having osteocytes or bone cells.
 Bone is the hardest tissue of the body.
Functions
 Provides shape to the body
 Provides skeletal support
 Protects vital body organs – brain, lungs etc
 Serves as a storage site of Ca, P
 Anchors the muscles.
 Vascular or fluid connective tissue
 It is a mobile connective tissue - transport system.
 Instead of fibres it contains fibrinogen which can produce fibres (coagulation).
 It links different parts of the body and maintains continuity in the body.
 It includes blood and lymph.
Blood
 Reddish coloured, viscous, sticky, saltish vascular tissue that flows
inside bvs.

 pH – 7.4

 It has two parts – Plasma (55%), Blood cells(45%)

 Plasma: Fluid matrix, pale yellow, 90-92% of water. 8-10% of organic

(soluble proteins) and inorganic salts (Na & Cl).

 Organic soluble proteins – Albumin (maintains OP of blood),

Fibrinogen (clotting of blood), Globulins (acts as antibodies), glucose,
aa’s, lipids, vitamins, enzymes, hormones, anticoagulant (heparin),
waste materials (urea, uric acid).
Blood Corpuscles / Cells:
 RBC (erythrocytes) : biconcave (increases the surface area), disc – shaped,
enucleated, iron containing red respiratory pigment Hb – carries oxygen.

 Present large in number: 4.5 – 5.0 million/mm3. 30-35% of RBC consist of iron
containing protein – Hb.

 WBC (leucocytes): Colourless, nucleated cells that change shape. No. is 6000-
8000/mm3

 They are of two main kinds : Phagocytes (cell engulfing) & Immunocytes
( antibodies)

 Phagocytes : 2 types i.e – granulocytes, agranulocytes

 Immunocytes: lymphocytes.
Monocytes:
migrate to body
tissue &
transform -
macrophages,
histiocytes(phago
cyte)
Lymphocytes:
less cytoplasm no
granules, some
transform into
plasma cells.
Blood platelets:
minutes
anucleated,
fragile fragments
of bone marrow
cells, called
megakaryocytes.
Platelets also
helps in blood
clotting.
Functions
 Transports nutrients, hormones, vitamins to tissues, excretory
products from tissues to liver and kidney.

 RBCs carry oxygen to tissue (oxidation of food)

 WBCs fights diseases by engulfing, producing Ab

 Platelets (thrombocytes, thromboplastin) helps in clotting of blood.

 Maintains OP around the cells, inside tissues & organs

 Conducts heat and regulates body temperature

Lymph
Muscular tissue
 Muscular tissue is a specialized tissue in animals which applies forces to different
parts of the body by contraction. It is made up of thin and elongated cells called
muscle fibers. It controls the movement of an organism.
 The cytoplasm in the muscle fibers is called sarcoplasm. It contains a network of
membrane called the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The membrane surrounding the muscle
fibers is called sarcolemma.
 Movement of limbs is brought by contraction and relaxation of the contractile protein
present in the muscle cells.
 Movements of internal organs such as heart, alimentary canal are caused by muscle
tissue.
 On the basis of structure, location and function, there are three types of muscle
fibres.
 i) Striated
 Ii) smooth
 Iii) cardiac
Striated muscles/ striped/ voluntary/
skeletal
• These muscles are attached to the skeleton and help in its movement.
• These muscles are also known as striated muscles because of the presence of
alternate patterns of light and dark bands. (striped muscles)
• They bring about the movement of the body as they are attached to the bones –
skeletal muscles
• These light and dark bands are sarcomeres which are highly organized structures of
actin, myosin, and proteins. These add to the contractility and extensibility of the
muscles.
• Skeletal muscles are voluntary muscles composed of muscle fibers.
• 40% of our body mass comprises skeletal muscles.
Nature: The cells of these tissues are multinucleated, long elongated cells, non
tapering, cylindrical and unbranched. Each cell is enclosed in a thin distinct PM called
sarcolemma.
Each skeletal tissue contains myofibrils or sarcostyles which contractile elements
present in the sarcoplasm. Nuclei is in the periphery.
These are provided with blood vessels and many elongated mitochondria and glycogen
Occurrence and function:
 Limbs (triceps, biceps) body walls, face, neck etc.
 Tongue, pharynx, diaphragm, upper part of oesophagus are called visceral striated
msucles.
 Functions:
 Powerful and undergo rapid contractions
 These muscles may get tried and may need rest
 Provide force for locomotion and other voluntary movements.
 Smooth muscles
• These are non-striated, involuntary muscles controlled by the Autonomous Nervous System. Hence,
called unstriated/ visceral or involuntary muscles.

• It stimulates the contractility of the digestive, urinary, reproductive systems, blood vessels, and airways.

• The actin and myosin filaments are very thin and arranged randomly, hence no striations.

• The cells are spindle-shaped with a single nucleus which occurs in bundles.

• Delicate contractile threads called myofibrils.

• Occurrence: walls of hollow tubular visceral organs except heart.

• Present in walls of alimentary canal, ducts of glands, urogenital ducts, bv’s, stomach, intestine, ureter,
bronchi, iris of eye etc.
• Functions:
 They are involuntary
 Causes extrusive movements in urinary bladder, gall bladder and uterus. Peristaltic movement –
gastrointestinal tracts and male genital tracts.
 Cardiac muscle
• These are found only in the heart.
• Shows characteristics of both smooth and striated muscles.
• These are involuntary muscles and the heart pumps the blood through cardiac contractions.
• The cells of the cardiac muscles known as the cardiomyocytes & are striated.
• They are single-celled and uninucleated, branched fibres and branches join the network.
• Each fibre or cell surrounds sarcolemma, a sarcoplasm with longitudinal myofibrils and
centrally located nuclei.
• The intercellular spaces are filled with loose connective tissue with blood capillaries.
• They have stripes of light and dark bands. These muscle fibres show densely stained cross
bands called intercalated impulse (act as an impulse booster).
• Occurrence: walls of heart.
• Functions: it contracts and relax rapidly, rhythmically and tirelessly throughout lifetime.
• This helps heart muscles to pump and distribute blood to various parts of the body.
Nervous tissue
 Specialized tissue that transmits messages within our body.
 Brain, spinal cord and nerves makes up the nervous tissue.
 Nerve cells or neurons are highly specialized units of NT. They receive stimuli from within or
outside the body and conduct impulses to different parts of the body.
 Impulses travel from one neuron to another.
 They are the longest cells in our body upto a meter in length.

 Each neuron is made of cell body and neurites – axon and dendrites.

 Each neuron has three parts: cyton, dendrons, axon.

 Cyton: also known as cell body. Contains a central nucleus, all cell structures except centriole.
Cytoplasm is called the neuroplasm .Two special structures are present in cyton: Neurofibrils
(fine fibrils involved in transmission of impulses) and and contains deeply stained particles
(clumps of ribosomes) called Nissl’s granules.

 Dendrons: short processes arising from cyton further branches into dendrites. They are small,
tapering, branched protoplasmic outgrowths of cell body. dendrites also possess neurofibrils
and Nissl granules.

 They pick up impulses and transmit the same towards the cyton.
 Axon: single, long cylindrical process of uniform structure. Axon is devoid of Nissl’s granules but
contains neurofibrils.

 It carries impulses away from the cell body. Axon is surrounded by a sheath (neurolemma or
neurilemma) of special connective tissue cells called Schwann cells.

 The ensheathed axon is called nerve fibre.

 Nerve fibres are of two types: whitish medullated and greyish non-medullated. Medullated
nerve fibre have an additional medullary sheath below the neurolemma.

 At places the medullary sheath is absent. They are called nodes of Ranvier.

 The extra medullary sheath as well as nodes of Ranvier are absent in nonmedullated nerve
fibres.
 Axon is terminally divided into fine branches called the terminal nerve endings.

 These have knob like structures which comes in contact with muscles, glands,
skin for providing an impulse.

 These knobbed ends are known aa synaptic knobs or boutons and are
connected with dendrites of the adjacent neuron. Each such junction is called
synapse.

1. These synapses helps in transmission of impulse from one neuron to the next.
Transmission is generally carried out by a neurotransmitter called
acetylcholine.
Functions:

 Sensation: Picks up sensation of light, sound, smell, taste, touch, pain

and other stimuli
 Responses: NS provides responses to all stimuli
 Control: It exerts control over all body activities
 Coordination: NS coordinates the functioning of different body parts.
 Learned behaviour: behaviour, intelligence, memory, reasoning are
based on NS.
 Nervous Muscular Combinations: most body activities are performed
through combination of nervous and muscular tissue. it is also key to
our rapid response to stimuli.