UNIT-4

MEMORY
• A memory is just like a human brain. It is
used to store data and instruction. Computer
memory is the storage space in computer
where data is to be processed and instructions
required for processing are stored.
• The memory is divided into large number of small
parts. Each part is called a cell. Each
location or cell has a unique address which
varies from zero to memory size minus one.
• Memory is primarily of two types
• Internal Memory − cache memory and
primary/main memory
• External Memory − magnetic disk / optical
disk etc.
Memory Hierarchy
 Characteristics of Memory Hierarchy are
following when we go from top to bottom.
• Capacity in terms of storage increases.
• Cost per bit of storage decreases.
• Frequency of access of the memory by the
CPU decreases.
• Access time by the CPU increases.
 RAM

• A RAM constitutes the internal memory of the CPU for storing

data, program and program result. It is read/write memory. It is
called random access memory (RAM).
• Since access time in RAM is independent of the address to the
word that is, each storage location inside the memory is as easy to
reach as other location & takes the same amount of time. We can
reach into the memory at random & extremely fast but can also
be quite expensive.
• RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the
computer or if there is a power failure. Hence, a backup
uninterruptible power system (UPS) is often used with computers.
RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount
of data it can hold.
 Types of RAM
• Static RAM (SRAM)
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
 Static RAM (SRAM)
• The word static indicates that the memory
retains its contents as long as power remains
applied. However, data is lost when the power
gets down due to volatile nature. Static RAM is
used as cache memory needs to be very fast
and small.
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
• DRAM, must be continually refreshed in order
to maintain the data. This is done by placing
the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites
the data several hundred times per second.
DRAM is used for most system memory
because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are
made up of memory cells. These cells are
composed of one capacitor and one transistor.
• ROM
• ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from
which we can only read but cannot write on it. This
type of memory is non-volatile. The information is
stored permanently in such memories during
manufacture.
• A ROM, stores such instruction as are required to start
computer when electricity is first turned on, this
operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chip are not
only used in the computer but also in other electronic
items like washing machine and microwave oven.
• Following are the various types of ROM −
• MROM (Masked ROM)
• The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a
pre-programmed set of data or instructions. These kind of
ROMs are known as masked ROMs. It is inexpensive ROM.
• PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
• PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by
a user. The user buys a blank PROM and enters the desired
contents using a PROM programmer. Inside the PROM chip
there are small fuses which are burnt open during
programming. It can be programmed only once and is not
erasable.
• EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
• The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of
upto 40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During
programming an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The
charge is retained for more than ten years because the charge has no leakage
path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz crystal
window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During
normal use the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
• EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
• The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and
reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take
about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively
erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather
than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of re-programming is flexible
but slow.
• Serial Access Memory
• Sequential access means the system must
search the storage device from the beginning
of the memory address until it finds the
required piece of data. Memory device which
supports such access is called a Sequential
Access Memory or Serial Access Memory.
Magnetic tape is an example of serial access
memory.
• Direct Access Memory
• Direct access memory or Random Access
Memory, refers to conditions in which a
system can go directly to the information that
the user wants. Memory device which
supports such access is called a Direct Access
Memory. Magnetic disks, optical disks are
examples of direct access memory.
• Flash memory is a non-volatile memory chip
used for storage and for transfering data
between a personal computer (PC) and digital
devices. It has the ability to be electronically
reprogrammed and erased. It is often found in
USB flash drives, MP3 players, digital cameras
and solid-state drives.
Static RAM
 Simplify Modeling using Flip Flop

o Storage is modeled by an SR Flip Flop.

o Control logic
o One memory cell per bit

• For select = 0, the stored content is

held.
• For select = 1, the stored content is
determined by values on B and B’
• The outputs are gated by the select
line also.

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 SRAM Performance

o Current SRAMs have cycle times in low

nanoseconds (say 2.5ns)
o Used as cache

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Dynamic RAM
 DRAM read Operations

– Precharge bit line to VDD/2.

– Take the word line HIGH.
– Detect whether current flows into or out of the cell.
– Note: cell contents are destroyed by the read!
– Must write the bit value back after reading.

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 DRAM write Operations

– Take the word line HIGH.

– Set the bit line LOW or HIGH to store 0 or 1

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 DRAM Characteristics (Why Slow!)
o Destructive Read
 When cell read, charge removed
 Charge must be restored after a read
o Refresh
 Capacitors are not perfect! there’s steady leakage
 Charge must be restored periodically
o DRAM are dense (lots of cells) so there are many
address lines.
 To reduce the physical size of DRAM we can reduce the
number of pins by applying the address lines serially in two
parts:
• Row Address, and then
• Column Address

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• 2D and 2.5D Memory organization
• Internal structure of Memory either RAM or ROM is
made of memory cells which contains a memory
bit. Now the memory is formed in multidimensional
array of rows and columns. In which each cell stores
a bit and a complete row contains a word. A
memory simply can be divided in this below form.
• 2n = N where, n is the no. of address lines and N is
the total memory in bytes.
There will be 2n words.
• 2D Memory organization –
In 2D organization memory is divides in the form of rows
and columns.
• Each row contains a word now in this memory
organization there is a decoder.
• A decoder is a combinational circuit which contains n
input lines and 2n output lines.
• One of the output line will select the row which address
is contained in the MAR. And the word which is
represented by the row that will get selected and either
read or write through the data lines.
• 2.5D Memory organization –
In 2.5D Organization the scenario is the same but
we have two different decoders one is column
decoder and another is row decoder. Column
decoder used to select the column and row
decoder is used to select the row. Address from the
MAR will go in decoders’ input. Decoders will select
the respective cell. Through the bit outline, the data
from that location will be read or through the bit in
line data will be written at that memory location.
• Read and Write Operations –
• If the select line is in Read mode then the Word/bit
which is represented by the MAR that will be coming out
to the data lines and get read.
• If the select line is in write mode then the data from
memory data register (MDR) will go to the respective cell
which is addressed by the memory address register
(MAR).
• With the help of the select line the data will get selected
where the read and write operations will take place.
• Comparison between 2D & 2.5D Organizations –
• In 2D organization hardware is fixed but in 2.5D hardware
changes.
• 2D Organization requires more no. of Gates while 2.5D
requires less no. of Gates.
• 2D is more complex in comparison to the 2.5D
Organization.
• Error correction is not possible in the 2D organization but In
2.5D error correction is easy.
• 2D is more difficult to fabricate in comparison to the 2.5D
organization.