3252 BASIC ELECTRICA

ELECTRONICS &
INSTRUMENTATION
ENGINEERING
 UNIT 1 : ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
Definition of circuits:
A continuous conducting path consisting of
wires and other resistances and a switch between
the two terminals of a cell or a battery along which
an electric current flow is called a circuit.

Definition of Electrical circuit:

An electrical circuit is a closed path of wires
and electrical components which allows a current
through it on the application of potential difference
between two points in the path.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF ELECTRICAL
CIRCUITS
Classificatio
ns of
electrical
circuits

DC Circuits AC Circuits
 BASIC CIRCUIT COMPONENTS
The basic circuits components are
1.Conductor 2.Resistor

3.Inductor 4. Capacitor
BASIC DC
CIRCUIT
 BASIC CIRCUIT COMPONENTS
1. CONDUCTOR
Electrical conductor is defined as materials that
allow electricity to flow through them easily. This property of
conductors that allow them to conduct electricity is known
as conductivity.
The flow of electrons in a conductor is known as
the ”ELECTRIC CURRENT”. The force required to make that
current flow through the conductor is known as ”VOLTAGE”.
EXAMPLE: Metals ( Copper, Gold, Iron), humans, and earth are
all conductors.
INSULATOR
Materials that do not permit heat and electricity to
pass through it
EXAMPLE: Plastic, Wood, Glass
RESISTOR
RESISTOR
DEFINITION
A passive electrical component with two terminals that are
used for either limiting or regulating the flow of electric current in
electrical circuits.
The main purpose of resistor is to reduce the current flow
and to lower the voltage in any particular portion of the circuit.
UNIT:
The SI unit of resistor is Ohm (Ώ).

SYMBOL:

Its made-up of carbon, metal, or metal-oxide film

COLOR CODING OF RESISTORS
 RESISTOR IN SERIES & PARALLEL
RESISTORS IN SERIES CONNECTION:
Resistors are said to be in series when the current flowing
through all the resistors is the same.
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 +……+Rn

RESISTORS IN PARALLEL CONNECTION:

Resistors are said to be in parallel when the terminals of
resistors are connected to the same two nodes. Resistors in
parallel share the same voltage at their terminals.
1/Rtotal = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 +……+1/Rn
DIFFERENCE B/W SERIES & PARALLEL CIRCUIT
REAL TIME APPLICATION
 Because of the nature of generating heat
when conducting current, resistors are used in
a heater, toaster, microwave, electric stove, and
many more heating appliances.

 In a light bulb, the metal filament glows

white-hot due to the very high temperature
produced from the resistance when electricity is
passed through it.
INDUCTOR
INDUCTOR (L)
DEFINIION:
An inductor is a passive component that is mostly used in
power electronic circuits to store energy in the form of
magnetic energy when electricity is applied to it.
SYMBOL:

UNIT:
The S.I. unit of inductance is Henry (H) and It is denoted by
the symbol (L).
INDUCTORS IN SERIES FORM

LTotal = L1 + L2 + L3

INDUCTORS IN PARALLEL FORM

1 / LTotal = 1 / L1 + 1 / L2 + 1 / L3

ENERGY STORED IN AN INDUCTOR

2
REAL TIME APPLICATION
Inductors are used in tuning circuits

inductor are used in various electronic devices such as radio

tuning circuits, and

television in order to modify the frequency and help to select

within multiple channels of frequency.
CAPACIT
OR
CAPACITOR
DEFINITION
 A capacitor is defined as the passive component which is used for
storing the electrical energy.
 A capacitor is made of two conductors that are separated by the
dielectric material. These dielectric materials are in the form of
plates which can accumulate charges.
 One plate is for a positive charge while the other is for a negative
charge

SYMBOL:

UNIT:
A Farad (F) is the standard unit of capacitance (C)
INDUCTORS IN SERIES FORM

Two or more capacitor are connected in series, the total capacitor of

a circuit is,

INDUCTORS IN PARALLEL FORM

two or more capacitors are connected in parallel in a circuit, the
total capacitor is given by
REAL TIME APPLICATION
Capacitive touch-screens use a layer of capacitive
material to hold an electrical charge; touching the
screen changes the amount of charge at a specific
point of contact.
Ceiling fan
Electronic flash on camera
 CLASS EXERCISE

Write the comparison table of series & parallel

circuit.
Georg Simon
 OHM’S LAW
Ohm’s law states the relationship between electric
current and potential difference (voltage).

The current that flows through most conductors is

directly proportional to the voltage applied to it.

Georg Simon Ohm, a German physicist was the

first to verify ohm’s law experimentally.

DEFINITION
Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a
conductor is directly proportional to the current
flowing through it, provided all physical conditions
and temperatures remain constant.
Mathematically, this current-voltage relationship is
written as, V = IR
In the equation, the constant of proportionality, R, is
called Resistance and has units of ohms, with the
symbol Ω.

The same formula can be rewritten in order to

calculate the current and resistance respectively as
follows
and
OHM’S LAW APPLICATIONS
The main applications of Ohm’s law are:
To determine the Voltage (V), Resistance(R) or
Current (I) of an electric circuit.

Ohm’s law maintains the desired voltage drop

across the electronic components.

Ohm’s law is also used in DC ammeter

Limitations of Ohm’s law
Following are the limitations of Ohm’s law:
Ohm’s law is not applicable for unilateral electrical
elements like diodes and transistors as they allow
the current to flow through in one direction only.

For non-linear electrical elements with parameters

like capacitance, resistance etc the ratio of voltage
and current won’t be constant with respect to time
making it difficult to use Ohm’s law.
 KIRCHHOFF’S
LAWS

ROBERT GUSTAV
KIRCHHOFF
(1824 – 1887)
KIRCHHOFF’S LAW
Kirchhoff’s Law will help us understand how to analyze a DC
circuit.

DC means Direct Current where the current travels in one

direction, from the +ve terminal of the voltage source (battery) to
the -ve terminal.

Kirchhoff’s law can be classified as two law

1. kirchhoff’s Current law (KCL) or
2. kirchhoff’s Voltage law (KVL)
CIRCUIT TERMINOLOGY
CIRCUIT
a circuit is a complete circular path that electricity flows
through. A simple circuit consists of a current source or voltage
source, conductors and a load.

PATH (or) BRANCH

Branches are the connections between nodes. A branch is
an element (resistor, capacitor, source, etc.). The number of
branches in a circuit is equal to the number of elements
NODE (or) JUNCTION
a node is defined as a junction at which two or more
elements will be joined together and thus have common point for
more than one branch

LOOP (or) MESH

A loop is any closed path going through circuit elements. To
draw a loop, select any node as a starting point and draw a path
through elements and nodes until the path comes back to the node
where you started.
KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW
KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW
 INTRODUCTION TO AC CIRCUITS
The circuit that is excited using alternating
source is called an AC Circuit.
The alternating current (AC) is used for
domestic and industrial purposes.
In an AC circuit, the value of the magnitude
and the direction of current and voltages is not
constant, it changes at a regular interval of time.
CIRCUIT & WAVEFORM
The various terms which are frequently used in an
AC circuit are as follows

AMPLITUDE
The maximum positive or negative value
attained by an alternating quantity in one complete
cycle is called Amplitude or peak value or
maximum value. The maximum value of voltage
and current is represented by Em or Vm and
Im respectively.

ALTERNATION
One-half cycle is termed as alternation. An
alternation span is of 180 degrees electrical.
CYCLE
When one set of positive and negative values
completes by an alternating quantity or it goes
through 360 degrees electrical, it is said to have
one complete Cycle.

INSTANTANEOUS VALUE
The value of voltage or current at any instant
of time is called an instantaneous value. It is
denoted by (i or e).

FREQUENCY
The number of cycles made per second by an
alternating quantity is called frequency. It is
measured in cycle per second (c/s) or hertz (Hz)
and is denoted by (f).
TIME PERIOD
The time taken in seconds by a voltage or a current
to complete one cycle is called Time Period. It is
denoted by (T).

WAVE FORM
The shape obtained by plotting the instantaneous
values of an alternating quantity such as voltage
and current along the y-axis and the time (t) or
angle (θ=wt) along the x-axis is called a waveform.
Why generating AC in Power stations?
For the generation of electric power, all over
the world the sinusoidal voltage and current are
selected because of the following reasons are given
below.
 The sinusoidal voltage and current produce low
iron and copper losses in the transformer and
rotating electrical machines, which in turns
improves the efficiency of the AC machines.
 They offer less interference to the nearby
communication system.
 AC CIRCUIT
PARAMETERS
 AC CIRCUIT PARAMETERS
PEAK VALUE
Definition:
The maximum value attained by an alternating
quantity during one cycle is called its Peak value. It is
also known as the maximum value or amplitude or crest
value.
The sinusoidal alternating quantity obtains its
peak value at 90 degrees as shown in the figure below
The peak values of alternating voltage and
current is represented by Em and Im respectively.
AVERAGE VALUE
Definition:
The average of all the instantaneous values of an
alternating voltage and currents over one complete cycle is
called Average Value.
If we consider symmetrical waves like sinusoidal current or
voltage waveform, the positive half cycle will be exactly equal to
the negative half cycle. Therefore, the average value over a
complete cycle will be zero, therefore the average value is
determined without considering the signs.
So, the only positive half cycle is considered to determine
the average value of alternating quantities of sinusoidal waves.
Let us take an example to understand it.

Divide the positive half cycle into (n) number

of equal parts as shown in the above figure
Let i1, i2, i3…….. in be the mid ordinates
R.M.S VALUE
Definition:
That steady current which, when flows
through a resistor of known resistance for a given
period of time than as a result the same quantity of
heat is produced by the alternating current when
flows through the same resistor for the same
period of time is called R.M.S or effective value of
the alternating current.
In other words, the R.M.S value is defined as
the square root of means of squares of
instantaneous values.
ACTIVE POWER
Definition :
The power which is actually consumed or utilized in an
AC Circuit is called as “Active Power”.

Denoted By :P
Unit : kilowatt (kW) or MW
Expression : P = VI cos (ϕ)
Other Name : True power or Real power
Measuring
Instrument : Wattmeter
REACTIVE POWER
Definition :
The power which flows back and forth that means it
moves in both the directions in the circuit or reacts upon
itself, is called as “Reactive Power”.

Denoted By : Q
Unit : kilo volt-ampere reactive (kVAR)
(or) MVAR
Expression : Q = VI sin (ϕ)
Other Name : Use-less Power, Watt less Power

Note:
Positive (+ve) for Inductive loads and Negative (-ve)
for Capacitive load.
APPARENT POWER
Definition :
The total amount of power flowing from
source to load in an AC circuit is known as
“Apparent Power”. Apparent power provides the
total power i.e. active power as well as reactive
power in the circuit.

Denoted By :S
Unit : Volt-Ampere (VA)
Expression : S = VI
Other Name : Total power
Measuring
Instrument : kVA meter
EXPLANATION OF TYPES OF POWER
TYPES OF AC CIRCUITS
PURE RESISTIVE AC
CIRCUIT

PURE INDUCTIVE AC
CIRCUIT

PURE CAPACITOR AC
CIRCUIT

R-L SERIES AC CIRCUIT

R-L-C SERIES AC CIRCUIT

R-C SERIES AC CIRCUIT

 PURE RESISTIVE AC CIRCUIT
 The circuit containing only a pure resistance of R ohms in the AC
circuit is known as Pure Resistive AC Circuit.
 The alternating current and voltage both move forward as well as
backwards in both the direction of the circuit.
 In the purely resistive circuit, the power is dissipated by the
resistors and the phase of the voltage and current remains same
i.e., both the voltage and current reach their maximum value at the
same time.
 Let the alternating voltage
Applied across the circuit be
given by the equation

V = Vm Sin ωt
PURE RESISTIVE AC CIRCUIT continue..
instantaneous value of current flowing through the
resistor shown in the figure below will be
i = V/R = (Vm/R) Sin ωt
The value of current will be maximum when ωt=
90° or sinωt = 1Putting the value of sinωt in
equation
i = Im Sin ωt

Instantaneous power, p= vi
PHASE ANGLE AND WAVEFORM
The voltage and the current in the purely
resistive circuit are in phase with each other
having no phase difference with phase angle zero.
The alternating quantity reaches their peak
value at the interval of the same time period that is
the rise and fall of the voltage and current occurs
at the same time.
 PURE INDUCTIVE AC CIRCUIT
 The circuit which contains only inductance (L) and not
any other quantities like resistance and capacitance in
the circuit is called a Pure inductive circuit.

 In this type of circuit, the current lags behind the voltage

by an angle of 90 degrees.

 When the current flowing through inductor changes then

time-varying magnetic field causes emf which obstruct
the flow of current.

 The inductance is measured in Henry.

 The opposition of flow of current is known as

Let the alternating voltage applied to the circuit is
given by the equation:
V = Vm Sin ωt …….. (1)

As a result, an alternating current i flows through

the inductance which induces an emf in it. The
equation is shown below:
e = - L di/dt
The emf which is induced in the circuit is equal and
opposite to the applied voltage. Hence, the
equation becomes,
V = - e ……… (2)
Putting the value of e in above equation we will get
the equation as
Vm Sin ωt = L di/dt (or)
Integrating both sides of the equation (3), we will
get

where, XL = ω L is the opposition offered to

the flow of alternating current by a pure
inductance and is called “INDUCTIVE
REACTANCE”.
The value of current will be maximum when sin (ωt –
π/2) = 1
Therefore,

Substituting this value in Im from the equation (5)

and putting it in equation (4) we will get

PHASOR DIAGRAM:
 PURE CAPACITIVE AC CIRCUIT
The circuit containing only a pure capacitor of capacitance
C farads is known as a Pure Capacitor Circuit.
The capacitors stores electrical power in the electric field,
their effect is known as the capacitance. It is also called
the condenser.
The capacitor consists of two conductive plates which are
separated by the dielectric medium. The dielectric material
is made up of glass, paper, mica, oxide layers, etc.
 In pure AC capacitor circuit, the current leads the voltage
by an angle of 90 degrees.
A capacitor consists of two insulating plates which are
separated by a dielectric medium. It stores energy in
electrical form. The capacitor works as a storage device,
and it gets charged when the supply in ON and gets
discharged when the supply is OFF. If it is connected to the
direct supply, it gets charged equal to the value of the
applied voltage.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF PURE CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT

Let the alternating voltage applied to the circuit is given by

the equation:
V = Vm Sin ωt ………. (1)
Charge of the capacitor at any instant of time is given as
q = Cv ……… (2)
Current flowing through the circuit is given by the
equation:
i = d/dt (q)
Putting the value of q from the equation (2) in equation
(3) we will get
i = d/dt {C v} ………………….. (3)

i = d/dt { C Vm Sin ωt }

= C Vm d/dt {Sin ωt } Or i = ω C Vm Cos ωt

i = Vm / Xc {Sin (ωt + π/2 )}

Where Xc = 1/ωC is the opposition offered to

the flow of alternating current by a pure capacitor
and is called CAPACITIVE REACTANCE.
 PHASOR DIAGRAM OF PURE
CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT
V = Vm Sin ωt
i = Vm / Xc {Sin (ωt + π/2 )}
STEADY STATE
ANALYSIS
OF
R-L-C CIRCUITS
 RLC SERIES CIRCUIT
When a pure Resistance Of R Ohms, a pure
Inductance Of L Henry and a pure Capacitance Of
C Farads are connected in series combination
then RLC Series Circuit is formed.

As all the three elements are connected in series

so, the current flowing through each element of
the circuit will be the same as the total current I
flowing in the circuit.
In the RLC Series circuit
XL = 2πfL and
XC = 1/2πfC

When the AC voltage is applied through the RLC

Series circuit the resulting current I flows through the
circuit, and thus the voltage across each element will
be:

 VR = IR that is the voltage across the resistance R and is

in phase with the current I.

 VL = IXL that is the voltage across the inductance L and it

leads the current I by an angle of 90 degrees.

 VC = IXC that is the voltage across capacitor C and it lags

PHASOR DIAGRAM OF RLC SERIES CIRCUIT
The phasor diagram of the RLC series circuit
when the circuit is acting as an Inductive Circuit
that means (VL>VC) is shown below and if (VL<
VC) the circuit will behave as a Capacitive
Circuit.
 STEPS TO DRAW THE PHASOR DIAGRAM OF
THE RLC SERIES CIRCUIT
Take current I as the reference as shown in the
figure above
The voltage across the inductor L that is V L is
drawn leads the current I by a 90-degree angle.
The voltage across the capacitor c that is V c is
drawn lagging the current I by a 90-degree angle
because in capacitive load the current leads the
voltage by an angle of 90 degrees.
The two vector VL and VC are opposite to each
other.
Where,

IMPEDANCE
It is the total opposition offered to the flow of
current by an RLC Circuit and is known
as Impedance of the circuit.

PHASE ANGLE
From the phasor diagram, the value of phase
angle will be
POWER IN RLC SERIES CIRCUIT
The product of voltage and current is defined as
power.

Where cosϕ is the power factor of the circuit and

is expressed as:

THE THREE CASES OF RLC SERIES CIRCUIT

 CASE I: When XL > XC, the phase angle ϕ is positive.
The circuit behaves as RL series circuit in which the
current lags the voltage by 90 degrees and the power
factor is lagging.

 CASE II: When XL < XC, the phase angle ϕ is negative,

and the circuit acts as a series RC circuit in which the
current leads the voltage by 90 degrees and the
 CASE III: When XL = XC, the phase angle ϕ is zero,
as a result, the circuit behaves like a purely
resistive circuit. In this type of circuit, the current
and voltage are in phase with each other. The
value of the power factor is unity.

APPLICATIONS OF RLC SERIES CIRCUIT

 It acts as a variable tuned circuit
 It acts as a low pass, high pass, band pass, band

stop filters depending upon the type of frequency.

 The circuit also works as an oscillator
 Voltage multiplier and pulse discharge circuit