Formation of

Rocks
Rocks and minerals and their exploitation
By: Syed Moazzam Ali
 Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
• describe, with examples, the characteristics of igneous, sedimentary
and metamorphic rocks
• explain the formation of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks
• explain the rock cycle
• describe surface and subsurface mining
• describe the reasons for extracting rocks and minerals
• describe the impact of rock and mineral extraction on the environment
and human populations
• discuss methods of landscape restoration after rock and mineral
extraction
• explain the terms sustainable resource and sustainable development
• discuss how rocks and minerals can be used sustainably.

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 Discussion: Third Rock from Sun
Earth as a Rocky Planet:
Earth is a rocky planet, unlike gas giants like Jupiter, which
are primarily composed of hydrogen and helium gases.
This rocky composition is essential for supporting life on
Earth, providing stable ground, natural resources, and
essential elements.
Earth’s structure consists mainly of rocks and metal ores,
particularly iron and nickel, which are most concentrated in
the core.
The solid nature of Earth’s surface allows for the
development of complex ecosystems, habitats, and natural
resources that are vital for human civilization and
environmental stability.
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 Earth’s Weight and Density
Earth has a massive weight of approximately 5.97
× 10²⁶ kg (about 6 septillion kilograms), making it
the densest planet in our solar system with a
density of 5.2 g/cm³.
This high density is primarily due to the iron core,
surrounded by a rocky mantle that forms the
majority of Earth’s mass.
Additional Detail: The dense core generates Earth’s
magnetic field, which protects life on the planet by
deflecting solar radiation and preventing
atmospheric loss to space.

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 Accessible Part of Earth
The Earth’s crust, a thin outer layer above the mantle, is
the only layer accessible to humans. Although this crust
contains vast mineral and rock resources, it represents
only a small fraction of Earth’s mass.
These resources are finite, meaning they could
eventually be depleted if overused. This is especially
true for fossil fuels and certain rare minerals.
Human activities, such as mining and quarrying, can
lead to serious environmental impacts, including
deforestation, soil erosion, water pollution, and habitat
destruction, making sustainable management essential.

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 Concept of Peak Mineral
Peak mineral is a theoretical point where the maximum rate of
extraction for a specific mineral is reached, after which production
inevitably declines due to resource depletion.
Examples:
Coal: Estimates for peak coal range, with some suggesting it could
occur within the next 200 years, while others believe it may have
already occurred.
Oil: Predicted peak dates have shifted as new extraction technologies
are developed; peak oil remains uncertain.
Phosphorus, Copper, Uranium: Phosphorus (used in fertilizers) is
predicted to peak around 2030, copper (used in electronics and
wiring) around 2040, and uranium (used for nuclear energy) by the
2030s.
Understanding these peaks is crucial to reducing dependency on
nonrenewable resources and encouraging alternatives, such as
renewable energy and recycling.
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 Importance of Conservation
Conservation strategies—reducing, reusing, and
recycling materials—help prolong resource
availability, minimize environmental damage, and
reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
By conserving resources, we protect their
availability for future generations and reduce the
demand for new extraction.
Additional Detail: Conservation also includes
efforts to reclaim and rehabilitate mined land,
which can help restore ecosystems and prevent
pollution of soil and water sources

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Formation of
Rocks
 Formation of Earth’s Layer
Earth formed around 4.5 billion years ago. Gravity
concentrated heavier elements (like iron) at the
center, creating the dense core, while lighter
elements formed the crust.
The mantle formed as an intermediate layer,
composed of solid and semi-molten rock that
circulates due to temperature and pressure changes.
This layering is essential for plate tectonics, driving
processes like earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and
the formation of mountains, which shape Earth’s
surface and contribute to the rock cycle.

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Types of Rock
 Igneous Rocks
• Formation Process:
• Igneous rocks are created from cooling and
solidifying molten rock. When magma cools below
the Earth’s surface, it forms intrusive rocks, while
lava cooling on the surface forms extrusive rocks.
• Extrusive igneous rocks cool quickly, forming small
crystals, while Intrusive rocks cool slowly, allowing
larger crystals to form.
• Igneous rock formations can vary greatly in
appearance and mineral composition based on the
cooling rate, magma composition, and location of
formation.
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 Crystal Formation
• Crystal size depends on how fast the molten
rock cools. Rapid cooling results in fine-grained
crystals, while slower cooling allows larger
crystals to develop.
• Crystals are essential components of igneous
rocks and often contain valuable minerals like
quartz, feldspar, and mica.
• Large, clear crystals in igneous rocks are highly
valued in jewelry, and certain mineral deposits
in these rocks are crucial for electronics and
construction.
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 Examples and Uses
• Granite: A durable rock formed from slow-cooling
magma; widely used in construction and
monuments due to its strength and resistance to
weathering.
• Basalt: Common in volcanic regions; forms from
fast-cooling lava and is used for construction,
especially as an aggregate in road-building.
• Igneous rocks are also important for soil
formation, as they weather into mineral-rich
particles that support plant growth.

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 Sedimentary Rocks and Formation
• Sedimentary rocks are formed from layers
of sediment deposited over time, which
compact and harden under pressure.
• These sediments come from the
weathering of other rocks and the
accumulation of organic material.
• Sedimentary rocks often contain fossils,
which provide critical evidence of Earth’s
past climates and biological evolution.

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 Types of Sediments
• Sediments include clay, silt, sand, and gravel.
Clay forms mudstones, while sand and gravel
accumulate in layers to form sandstones and
conglomerates.
• Sediment layers settle in various environments,
including rivers, lakes, and oceans, each layer
offering clues about past conditions.
• Sedimentary layering offers a historical
timeline of Earth’s surface conditions,
recording geological and environmental
changes.
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 Examples and Application
• Limestone: Used in construction and
cement production; also plays a role in
purifying water and soil.
• Shale: Often contains fossil fuels, such as
oil and natural gas, which can be extracted
through hydraulic fracturing.
• Sedimentary rocks are essential for
studying past environments and for the
natural filtration of water through layers of
permeable rock.
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 Metamorhic Rocks and Formation
• Metamorphic rocks form when existing rocks
are subjected to high temperatures and
pressures without melting, causing physical and
chemical changes.
• These rocks are typically more dense and
durable due to the recrystallization of minerals
within the rock.
• The formation of metamorphic rocks occurs
deep within the crust, where pressure and
temperature conditions are intense, often along
tectonic boundaries.
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 Characteristics and Transformation
• Metamorphic rocks are generally harder and
more resistant to erosion than sedimentary
rocks, making them valuable for construction
and art.
• They can originate from any type of rock—
sedimentary, igneous, or even other
metamorphic rocks.
Metamorphic rocks, like marble and slate, are
popular in building and sculpture due to their
unique textures, color patterns, and durability.
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The Rock Cycle
 Constant Transformation
• The rock cycle is a continuous process that
transforms rocks through various stages,
including erosion, melting, and metamorphism.
• This cycle is driven by plate tectonics, which
causes rocks to move, melt, and reform over
millions of years.
• The rock cycle contributes to landscape
changes and is responsible for creating
mountain ranges, volcanoes, and valleys, all of
which play a role in Earth’s ecosystems.

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 Significance of Earth’s Surface
• The rock cycle is a continuous process that
transforms rocks through various stages,
including erosion, melting, and metamorphism.
• This cycle is driven by plate tectonics, which
causes rocks to move, melt, and reform over
millions of years.
• The rock cycle contributes to landscape
changes and is responsible for creating
mountain ranges, volcanoes, and valleys, all of
which play a role in Earth’s ecosystems.

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