Math for Engineers

Numbers

Whole Numbers
• Whole Numbers are simply the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... (and so
on)

No Fractions

Counting Numbers
• Counting Numbers are Whole Numbers, but without the zero.
Because you can't "count" zero.
• So they are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... (and so on).
 Integers

• Integers are like whole numbers, but they also include negative
numbers ... but still no fractions allowed!

• So, integers can be negative {-1, -2,-3, -4, -5, ... }, positive {1, 2, 3,
4, 5, ... }, or zero {0}
• We can put that all together like this:
Integers = { ..., -5, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... }
• Example: these are all integers:
-16, -3, 0, 1, 198
(But numbers like ½, 1.1 and 3.5 are not integers)
 Number Line

• Writing numbers down on a Number Line makes it easy to tell

which numbers are bigger or smaller.
The Number Line

Negative Numbers (-) Positive Numbers (+)

(The line continues left and right forever.)

Numbers on the left are smaller than numbers on the right.

Examples: 5 is smaller than 8

−1 is smaller than 1
−8 is smaller than −5
 Addition & Subtraction

• Numbers Can be Positive or Negative:

Negative Numbers (-) Positive Numbers (+)

"−" is the negative sign. "+" is the positive sign

• No Sign Means Positive

• If a number has no sign it usually means that it is
a positive number.
• Example: 5 is really +5
 Signs

• Let's talk about signs.

"+" is the positive sign, "−" is the negative sign.
• When a number has no sign it usually means that it is positive.
• Example:
5 is really +5
And we can put () around the numbers to avoid confusion.
• Example:
3 × −2 can be written as 3 × (−2)
 Signs

Two Signs: The Rules

"Two like signs make a positive sign,

two unlike signs make a negative sign"

Example: (−2) × (+5)

The signs are − and + (a negative sign and a positive sign), so they are unlike
signs(they are different to each other)
So the result must be negative:
(−2) × (+5) = -10
Example: (−4) × (−3)
The signs are − and − (they are both negative signs), so they are like
signs (like each other)
So the result must be positive:
(−4) × (−3) = +12
 Addition & Subtraction

Balloons and Weights

This basket has balloons and weights tied to it:

 The balloons pull up (positive)

 And the weights drag down (negative)

Here is what adding and subtracting positive numbers looks like:

You can add balloons (you are adding

positive value)

• the basket gets pulled upwards (positive)

 Addition & Subtraction

Balloons and Weights

You can take away balloons (you are subtracting

positive value)
the basket gets pulled downwards (negative)

Now let's see what adding and subtracting negative numbers looks
like:
You can add weights (you are adding
negative values)
the basket gets pulled downwards (negative)
 Addition & Subtraction

Balloons and Weights

And you can take away weights (you

are subtracting negative values)
the basket gets pulled upwards (positive)

The previse cases leads to the following rules:

 Addition & Subtraction

Subtracting a Negative is the same as

Adding

Example:
What is 6 − (−3) ?
6−(−3) = 6 + 3 = 9

Example:
What is 14 − (−4) ?
14−(−4) = 14 + 4 = 18
 Addition & Subtraction

Subtracting a Positive
or
Adding a Negative
is
Subtraction
Example:
What is 6 − (+3) ?
6−(+3) = 6 − 3 = 3

Example:
What is 5 + (−7) ?
5+(−7) = 5 − 7 = −2
 Rules of
Addition & Subtraction

Rule Example
Two like signs become +(+) 3+(+2) = 3 + 2 = 5
a positive sign −(−) 6−(−3) = 6 + 3 = 9

Two unlike signs become +(−) 7+(−2) = 7 − 2 = 5

a negative sign −(+) 8−(+2) = 8 − 2 = 6

• They are "like signs" when they are like each other (in other
words: the same).

So, all you have to remember is:

• Two like signs become a positive sign
• Two unlike signs become a negative sign
 Examples of
Addition & Subtraction

• Example:
What is 5+(−2) ?

• Example:
What is 25−(−4) ?

• Example:
What is −6+(+3) ?
 Multiplication

• The basic idea of multiplication is repeated addition.

For example:
5 × 3 = 5 + 5 + 5 = 15

• But as well as multiplying by whole numbers, you can also multiply

by fractions or decimals.

For example
5 × 3½ = 5 + 5 + 5 + (half of 5) = 17.5
 Multiplication Negatives

When We Multiply:
Example

× two positives make a positive: 3×2=6

two negatives make a

× (−3) × (−2) = 6
positive:

a negative and a positive

× (−3) × 2 = −6
make a negative:

a positive and a negative

× 3 × (−2) = −6
make a negative:
 Multiplication

Example: Tank Levels Rising/Falling

The tank has 30,000 liters, and 1,000 liters are taken out every day.
What was the amount of water in the tank 3 days ago?
We know the amount of water in the tank changes by −1,000 every
day, and we need to subtract that 3 times (to go back 3 days), so the
change will be:
−3 × −1,000 = +3,000
The full calculation is:
30,000 + (−3 × −1,000) = 30,000 + 3,000 = 33,000
So 3 days ago there were 33,000 liters of water in the tank.
 Multiplication

• What About Multiplying 3 or More Numbers Together?

Multiply two at a time and follow the rules.

Example: What is (−2) × (−3) × (−4) ?

• First multiply (−2) × (−3). Two like signs make a positive sign, so:
(−2) × (−3) = +6
• Next multiply +6 × (−4). Two unlike signs make a negative sign, so:
+6 × (−4) = -24
 Division

• Division is splitting into equal parts or groups.

Symbols
We use the ÷ symbol, or sometimes the / symbol to
mean divide:
÷/ 12 ÷ 3 = 4
12 / 3 = 4
• Division is the opposite of multiplying. When we know a
multiplication fact we can find a division fact:

Example: 3 × 5 = 15, so 15 / 5 = 3.
Also 15 / 3 = 5.
 Division

Four Division/Multiplication related facts:

A×B=C
B×A=C
C/A=B
C/B=A

• Example:
3 × 5 = 15
5 × 3 = 15
15 / 3 = 5
15 / 5 = 3
 Division

Names

• There are special names for each number in a division:

dividend ÷ divisor = quotient

Example: in 12 ÷ 3 = 4

• 12 is the dividend
• 3 is the divisor
• 4 is the quotient
 Division

• Sometimes we cannot divide things up evenly ... there may be

something left over.
Example:
There are 7 apples to share with 2 kids.
But 7 cannot be divided exactly into 2 groups,
so each pup gets 3 bones,
but there will be 1 left over:
• We call that the Remainder
 Division

• The simplest way to do division is by repeated subtraction.

Example: What is 48 ÷ 12?

1. Take 48, subtract 12, we get 36
2. Repeat: 36-12 = 24
3. Repeat: 24-12 = 12
4. Repeat: 12-12 = 0
We had to do 4 subtractions, so 48 ÷ 12 = 4

• But this could take a long time for something like 3768 / 12, so
there is a faster method called Long Division.
 Long Division

• The number to be divided into is known as the Dividend.

• The number which divides the other number is known as
the Divisor.

• The long division is done in 5 steps:

1. Divide
2. Multiply
3. Subtract
4. Bring Down
5. Repeat or Remainder
 Long Division

• Example: 497 ÷ 3 = ?
Step One – Divide
• Divide 3 into the first number in the dividend.
• 3 will go into 4 one time.
• Write a 1 above the 4 because that’s the current
dividend.

Step Two – Multiply

• Multiply the divisor times the first number in
the quotient.
• Write the answer below the number you just
divided into.
 Long Division

Step Three – Subtract

• Subtract.
• Be sure to line up your numbers carefully.

Step Four – Bring Down

• Draw an arrow and bring the second digit in the dividend down.
 Long Division

Step Five – Repeat or Remainder

• Repeat the steps in the same manner as before,
as shown in the next set of slides.

Repeat Step One - Divide

• Divide 3 into the new number.
• 3 will go into 19 six times.
• Write a 6 above the 9 because that’s the current dividend.
 Long Division

Repeat Step Two - Multiply

• Multiply the divisor into the new number in your quotient.
3 x 6 = 18
• Write 18 below the number you just divided into.

Repeat Step Three - Subtract

 Long Division

Repeat Step Four – Bring Down

• If there are more digits in the dividend, repeat
the procedure.
• Bring the third digit in the dividend down.

Repeat Step Five – Repeat or Remainder

• If there are more digits in the dividend,
repeat the procedure.
• If there are no more digits in the dividend,
write the final subtraction answer as a remainder.
• If there is no remainder, you’re finished.
 Fractions

• A fraction is a part of a whole.

Slice a pizza, and you will have fractions:

1
/2 1
/4 3
/8

(One-Half) (One-Quarter) (Three-Eighths)

The top number tells how many slices you have

The bottom number tells how many slices the pizza
was cut into.
 Fractions

• Some fractions may look different, but are really the same, for
example:
4
/8 = 2
/4 = 1
/2
(Four-Eighths) Two-Quarters) (One-Half)

= =

• It is usually best to show an answer using the simplest fraction

( 1/2 in this case ). That is called Simplifying, or Reducing the
Fraction
 Fractions

Numerator / Denominator

• We call the top number the Numerator, it is the number of parts

you have.
• We call the bottom number the Denominator, it is the number of
parts the whole is divided into.
Numerator
Denominator

You just have to remember those names! (If you forget just think
"Down"-ominator)
 Fractions

What is a Denominator?
• The denominator is the bottom number in a fraction.
• It shows how many equal parts the item is divided into.

What is a Common Denominator?

• "Common" Denominator is when
the denominators in two (or more) fractions
are common, or the same.
 Adding Fractions

There are 3 Simple Steps to add fractions:

Step 1: Make sure the bottom numbers (the denominators) are the same.
Step 2: Add the top numbers (the numerators), put the answer over
the denominator.
Step 3: Simplify the fraction (if needed).
• Example :
Step 1. The bottom numbers (the denominators) are already the same. Go
straight to step 2.

Step 2. Add the top numbers and put the answer over the same denominator:

Step 3. Simplify the fraction:

 Adding Fractions

• You can add fractions easily if the bottom number (the denominator)
is the same:
1
/4 + 1
/4 = 2
/4 = 1
/2
(One-Quarter) (One-Quarter) (Two-Quarters) (One-Half)

+ = =

Another example
5
/8 + 1
/8 = 6
/8 = 3
/4

+ = =
 Adding Fractions

Fractions with Different Denominators

• Before we can add or subtract fractions, the fractions need to have

a common denominator (in other words the denominators must
be the same).
• When the denominators are not the same, we can either use the
Least Common Denominator method to make them the same, or
we can:
• Multiply top and bottom of each fraction by the denominator of
the other.
• Example:
 Adding Fractions

Adding Fractions with Different Denominators

• You must somehow make the denominators the same.

• In this case it is easy, because we know that 1/4 is the same
as 2/8 :
+ = =

• Another Example:

• You need to make the denominators the same.

 Adding Fractions

Common Denominator

• But what should the new denominator be?

1. We multiplied each fraction by the denominator of the other.
Let's use letters instead of numbers to show it:

2. 2. And because they now have the same denominator, we

can add them:
 Adding Fractions

Common Denominator

In One Step!
• We could do those two things in one step like this:

• So by applying to our example, multiply the current denominators

together:
3 × 6 = 18
• So instead of having the denominator 3 or 6, we will make both of
them 18.
 Adding Fractions

Least Common Denominator

• Here is how to find out:

1
/3 List the multiples of 3: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, ...
1
/6 List the multiples 6: 6, 12, 18, 24, ...
• Then find the smallest number that is the same
multiples of 3: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, ...
multiples 6: 6, 12, 18, 24, ...
• The answer is 6, and that is the Least Common Denominator.
• So let us try using it! We want both Denominator to be 6.
• When we multiply top and bottom of 1/3 by 2 we get 2/6
• 1/6 already has a denominator of 6
 Adding Fractions

• Example:

• Example:
 Adding Fractions

Summary:

• You can make equivalent fractions by multiplying or dividing both

top and bottom by the same amount.
• You only multiply or divide, never add or subtract, to get an
equivalent fraction.
• Only divide when the top and bottom would still be whole
numbers.
 Subtracting Fractions

There are 3 simple steps to subtract fractions

Step 1. Make sure the bottom numbers (the denominators) are

the same
Step 2. Subtract the top numbers (the numerators). Put the
answer over the same denominator.
Step 3. Simplify the fraction (if needed).

Example:
 Mixed Fractions

• A Mixed Fraction is a whole number and a fraction combined,

such as 1
• An Improper Fraction has a top number larger than or equal to the
bottom number, such as or .

Converting Improper Fractions to Mixed Fractions

• To convert an improper fraction to a mixed fraction, follow these
steps:
1. Divide the numerator by the denominator.
2. Write down the whole number answer
3. Then write down any remainder above the denominator.
 Mixed Fractions

Converting Improper Fractions to Mixed Fractions

Example Convert to a mixed fraction
1. Divide:
11 ÷ 4 = 2 with a remainder of 3
2. Write down the 2 and then write down the remainder (3) above
the denominator (4), like this:
2

Converting Improper Fractions to Mixed Fractions

To convert a mixed fraction to an improper fraction, follow these steps:
3. Multiply the whole number part by the fraction's denominator.
4. Add that to the numerator
5. Write that result on top of the denominator.
 Mixed Fractions

Converting Mixed Fractions to Improper Fractions

• Example Convert 3 to an improper fraction.
1. Multiply the whole number by the denominator:

3 × 5 = 15
2. Add the numerator to that:

15 + 2 = 17

3. Then write that down above the denominator, like this:

 Adding & Subtracting
Mixed Fractions

To make it easy to add and subtract Mixed Fraction, just convert to

Improper Fractions first:
1. Convert them to Improper Fractions.
2. Then add or subtract as requested .
3. Then convert back to Mixed Fractions.
Example: What is 2 + 3 ?
4. Convert to Improper Fractions: 2=
3 =
2. Common denominator of 4: stays as
becomes
 Adding & Subtracting
Mixed Fractions
3. Now Add:

4. Convert back to Mixed Fractions:

• Example: What is 15

• Example: What is 3
 Multiplying Fractions

Multiply the tops, multiply the bottoms.

There are 3 simple steps to multiply fractions
Step 1: Multiply the top numbers (the numerators).
Step 2: Multiply the bottom numbers (the denominators).
Step 3: Simplify the fraction if needed.

Example: ×

Step 1. Multiply the top numbers:

×
 Multiplying Fractions

Step 2. Multiply the bottom numbers:

×
Step 3. Simplify the fraction:

• Example: ×

• Example: ×

• Example: 3×
 Dividing Fractions

Turn the second fraction upside down, then multiply

There are 3 simple steps to divide fractions

Step 1: Turn the second fraction( the one you want to divide by )
upside down(this is now a reciprocal).
Step 2: Multiply the first fraction by that reciprocal.
Step 3: Simplify the fraction (if needed).

Example: ÷
Step 1. Turn the second fraction upside down(it becomes a reciprocal)
 Dividing Fractions

Step 2. Multiply the first fraction by that reciprocal:

×
Step 3. Simplify the fraction:

• Example: ÷

• Example: ÷

• Example: 3÷
 Decimals

• A Decimal Number (based on the number 10) contains a Decimal

Point.

• When we write numbers, the position (or "place") of each digit

is important.
In the number 327:
• the "7" is in the Units position, meaning just
7 (or 7 "1"s),
• the "2" is in the Tens position meaning 2 tens
(or twenty),
• and the "3" is in the Hundreds position,
meaning 3 hundreds.
 Adding & Subtracting Decimals

To add/subract decimals, follow these steps:

1. Write down the numbers, one under the other, with the decimal
points lined up.
2. Put in zeros so the numbers have the same length.
3. Then add/subtract using column addition, remembering to put
the decimal point in the answer.
Example: 1.452 + 1.3 =
• Line the decimals up: 1.452
+ 1.3

• "Pad" with zeros: 1.452

+ 1.300

• Add: 1.452
+ 1.300

2.752
 Adding & Subtracting Decimals

Example: Add 3.25, 0.075 and 5

Example: What is 7.368 − 1.15 ?

Example: Add 6.218 to 1.15

Example: Subtract 0.03 from 1.1

 Multiplying Decimals

Multiply without the decimal point, then re-insert it in the correct

spot!

To Multiply Decimals, follow these steps:

• Multiply normally, ignoring the decimal points.

• Then put the decimal point in the answer - it will have as many
decimal places as the two original numbers combined.
• In other words, just count up how many numbers are after the
decimal point in both numbers you are multiplying, then the
answer should have that many numbers after its decimal point.
 Multiplying Decimals

Example: Multiply 0.03 by 1.1

• Start with: 0.03 × 1.1

• Multiply without decimal points: 3 × 11 = 33

• 0.03 has 2 decimal places,
and 1.1 has 1 decimal place,
so the answer has 3 decimal places: 0.033

Example: Multiply 0.25 by 0.2

Example: Multiply 102 by 0.22

 Dividing Decimals

Quick method: use Long Division without the decimal point,

then re-insert the decimal point in the answer.
Dividing a Decimal Number by a Whole Number

To divide a decimal number by a whole number:

• Use Division or Long Division (ignoring the decimal point)
• Then put the decimal point in the same spot as the dividend (the
number being divided)

Example: Divide 9.1 by 7 13

7 )91
9
7
21
21
0
 Dividing Decimals

• if we want to divide by a Decimal Number

• The trick is to change the number we are dividing by to a whole
number first, by shifting the decimal point of both numbers to the
right:

• Now we are dividing by a whole number, and can continue as

normal.
• It is safe to do this if we remember to shift the decimal point
of both numbers the same number of places.
 Dividing Decimals

Example: Divide 6.4 by 0.4

We are not dividing by a whole number, so we need to move the
decimal point so we are dividing by a whole number:
move 1
6.4 64
0.4 4
move 1
6.4/0.4 is exactly the same as 64/4,
as we moved the decimal point of both numbers.
Now we can calculate:
64 / 4 = 16
So the answer is:
6.4 / 0.4 = 16
Convert Fractions to Decimals
 Exponents

• Exponents are shorthand for repeated multiplication of the same

thing by itself.
• The exponent of a number says how many times to use the
number in a multiplication.
In 82 the "2" says to use 8 twice in a multiplication,
so 82 = 8 × 8 = 64

• Exponents are also called Powers or Indices.

Example: 53 = 5 × 5 × 5 = 125

In words: 53 could be called "5 to the third power", "5 to the power 3"
or simply "5 cubed"
 Exponents

Example: 24 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 16
In words: 24 could be called "2 to the fourth power" or "2 to the
power 4" or simply "2 to the 4th“

• Exponents make it easier to write and use many multiplications

Example: 96 is easier to write and read than 9 × 9 × 9 × 9 × 9 × 9

So in general:
• an tells you to multiply a by itself,
so there are n of those a's:
 Negative Exponents

• A negative exponent means how many times to divide one by the

number.
Example: 8-1 = 1 ÷ 8 = 0.125
• You can have many divides:
Example: 5-3 = 1 ÷ 5 ÷ 5 ÷ 5 = 0.008
But that can be done an easier way:
• 5-3 could also be calculated like:
• 1 ÷ (5 × 5 × 5) = 1/53 = 1/125 = 0.008

In General
That last example showed an easier way to handle negative exponents:
1. Calculate the positive exponent (an)
2. Then take the Reciprocal (i.e. 1/ an)
 Negative Exponents

Example:

• 4-2 = = = 0.0625

• 10-3 = = = 0.001

• (-2)-3 = = = - 0.125
 Exponents

What if the Exponent is 1, or 0?

1 If the exponent is 1, then you just have the number itself

(example 91 = 9)

0 If the exponent is 0, then you get 1 (example 90 = 1)

• But what about 00 ? It could be either 1 or 0, and so people say it
is "indeterminate".
Be Careful About Grouping
To avoid confusion, use parentheses () in cases like this:
With () : (-2)2 = (-2) × (-2) = 4
Without () : -22 = -(22) = - (2 × 2) = -4
With () : (ab) 2 = ab × ab
Without () : ab2 = a × (b) 2 = a × b × b
 Exponents

Exponents are also called Powers or Indices

• The exponent of a number says how many times to use the

number in a multiplication.

Example: 82 = 8 × 8 = 64
• In words: 82 could be called "8 to the second power", "8 to the
power 2" or simply "8 squared“

Example:
• a7 = a × a × a × a × a × a × a = aaaaaaa
• x6 = xxxxxx
 Laws of Exponents

Law Example
x1 = x 61 = 6
x0 = 1 70 = 1
x-1 = 1/x 4-1 = 1/4
xmxn = xm+n x2x3 = x2+3 = x5
xm/xn = xm-n x6/x2 = x6-2 = x4
(xm)n = xmn (x2)3 = x2×3 = x6
(xy)n = xnyn (xy)3 = x3y3
(x/y)n = xn/yn (x/y)2 = x2 / y2
x-n = 1/xn x-3 = 1/x3
And the law about Fractional Exponents:

= =
= =
 Laws of Exponents

Laws Explained Example: Powers of 5

The first three laws above .. etc..
52 1×5×5 25
• 1
= 51 1×5 5
• 0
=1 50 1 1
0
= (n – n) = n × –n
=n÷ n=1 5-1 1÷5 0.2
• -1
= 5-2 1 ÷ 5 ÷ 5 0.04
.. etc..

With m n, how many times will you end up multiplying " "?
Answer: first "m" times, then by another "n" times, for a total of
"m+n" times.
Example: 2 3 = ()() = = 5
So, 2 3 = (2+3) = 5
 Laws of Exponents

• =
• How many times will you end up multiplying "x"?
Answer: "m" times, then reduce that by "n" times (because you are
dividing), for a total of "m-n" times.
Example: == =2
So, = (4-2) = 2
• (Remember that = 1, so every time you see an x "above the line"
and one "below the line" you can cancel them out.)
• This law can also show you why x0=1 .
Example: = 2-2 = 0 =1
 Laws of Exponents

• (m)n = mn
First you multiply "m" times. Then you have to do that "n" times, for a total of
m×n times.

Example: (3)4 = ()4 =()()()()= = 12

So (3)4 = 3×4 = 12

• (y)n = nyn
To show how this one works, just think of re-arranging all the ""s and "y“.

Example: (y)3 = (y)(y)(y) = yyy = yyy = ()(yyy) = 3y3

 Exponents

• =
Similar to the previous example, just re-arrange the ""s and "y"s.
Example: = =

• These rules does NOT work if you have a SUM or DIFFERENCE within
the parentheses. Exponents, unlike mulitiplication, do NOT
"distribute" over addition.
For Example: (3 + 4)2 =
32 + 42 ≠ 9 + 16 = 25
Actually (3 + 4)2 = (7)2 = 49 not 25
 Examples of Exponents

• Simplify (x3)(x4)

• Simplify (x2)4

• Simplify [(3x4y7z12)5 (–5x9y3z4)2]0

• Write x–4 using only positive exponents.

• Write x2 / x–3 using only positive exponents.

 Examples of Exponents

• Write 2x–1 using only positive exponents.

• Write (3x)–2 using only positive exponents.

• Write (x–2 / y–3)–2 using only positive exponents.

• Write 124 in scientific notation.

• Write in decimal notation: 3.6 × 1012

 Examples of Exponents

• Write 0.000 000 000 043 6 in scientific notation.

• Convert 4.2 × 10–7 to decimal notation.

• Convert 0.000 000 005 78 to scientific notation.

• Convert 93,000,000 to scientific notation.

 Examples of Exponents

• Simplify and express in scientific notation: (2.6 × 105) (9.2 × 10–13)

• Simplify and express in scientific notation:

 Radicals

• "Radicals" (or "roots") are the "opposite" operation of applying

exponents.
• You can "undo" a power with a radical, and a radical can "undo" a
power.
Example: =4 then =2
=9 then =3

• The " " symbol is called the "radical " symbol.

• The expression " " is read as "root nine",
"radical nine", or "the square root of nine".
Example: =
=
=
 Radicals

• You can raise numbers to powers other than just 2, you can cube
things, raise them to the fourth power, raise them to the 100th
power, and so forth.
• In the same way, you can take the cube root of a number, the
fourth root, the 100th root, and so forth.
• To indicate some root other than a square root, you use the same
radical symbol, but you insert a number into the radical, tucking it
into the "check mark" part.
For Example: = 64 so =4

• The "3" in the above is the "index" of the radical; the "64" is "the
argument of the radical", also called "the radicand". Since most
radicals you see are square roots, the index is not included on
square roots.
 nth Root

The "nth Root" used n times in a multiplication gives the original

value

" nth ? "

1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, ... nth ...
Instead of talking about the "4th", "16th", etc, if we want to talk
generally we say the "nth".

The nth Root

• The "2nd" root is the square root.
• The "3rd" root is the cube root.
• Etc.
 nth Root

• Just like the square root is

2 used two times in a multiplication to
get the original value.

• And the cube root is used three times

3 in a multiplication to get the original
value.

• The nth root is used n times in a

n multiplication to get the original value.

So it is the general way of talking about roots (so it could be 2nd, or

9th, or 324th, or whatever).
 nth Root

The nth Root Symbol

This is the special symbol that means "nth root",
it is the "radical" symbol (used for square roots)
with a little n to mean nth root.

Using the nth root

Example:
• Find the value of “n” in = 5
knowing that 625 = 54, so the 4th root of 625 must be 5.

• Find the value of “n” in = 2

 Radicals Properties

Multiplication and Division

• You can "pull apart" multiplications under the root sign

Example: = = =

=
• The same is applied to division

Example: = =
 Radicals Properties

Addition and Subtraction

The rules uses in Multiplication and Division Cannot be applied to
Addition and Subtraction

≠ +
≠ -
≠
 Radicals Properties

Addition and Subtraction

The rules used in Multiplication and Division Cannot be applied to
Addition and Subtraction
Example: if a2 + b2 = c2
then c=
but c≠a+b

• An exponent on one side of the "=" can be turned into a root on

the other side of the "=":
If then (when n is
if then even b must be ≥ 0)
Example: = 625 so =5
 Root of the Power

• When the exponent and root are different values (m and n).

Example: = 3

• The exponent and root can be combined to make a new exponent.

Example: = = 16

• The root is the same as an exponent of (1/n)

Example: =
 Root of the Power

Example: What is ?
Example: What is ?
Example: What is the value of ?
Example: What is ?
Example: What is ?
Example: What is ?
Example: Simplify
Example: Simplify
 Root of the Power

When a value has an exponent of n and you take the root you
will get the value back again

• when is positive (or zero): = (i.e. for a ≥ 0)

Example:

• when the exponent is odd: = (i.e. when n is odd)

Example:

Example: what is the value of

 Root of the Power

• when a is negative and the exponent is even you get this:

Note that: -3 became +3

we have: = (i.e. when n is even)

• |a| means the absolute value of a, in other words any negative

becomes a positive) n is odd n is even

Example: a≥0 = =

a<0 = =
 Absolute Value

Absolute Value means only how far a number is from zero:

"6" is 6 away from zero,

and "−6" is also 6 away from zero.
So the absolute value of 6 is 6,
and the absolute value of −6 is also 6

Examples: Find the absolute value of the following

• −9 = 9
• 3=3
• 0=0
• −156 = 156
 Absolute Value

Absolute Value means to remove any negative sign in front of a

number, and to think of all numbers as positive (or zero).
Absolute Value Symbol
To show that we want the absolute value of something, we put "|"
marks either side (they are called "bars" and are found on the right
side of a keyboard), like these examples:
|−5| = 5 |7| = 7
Subtract Either Way Around
And it doesn't matter which way around we do a subtraction, the
absolute value will always be the same:
|8−3| = 5 |3−8| = 5
(8−3 = 5) (3−8 = −5, and |−5| = 5)
 Absolute Value

Examples

• |−3×6| = 18
•

(−3×6 = −18, and |−18| = 18)

• −|5−2| = −3
•

(5−2 = 3 and then the first minus gets you −3)

• −|2−5| = −3
•

(2−5 = −3 , |−3| = 3, and then the first minus gets you −3)
• −|−12| = −12
•

(|−12| = 12 and then the first minus gets you −12)

 Absolute Value Properties

• |a| ≥ 0
|a| can never be less than zero.
• |a × b| = |a| × |b|
Means these are the same:
• the absolute value of (a times b), and
• (the absolute value of a) times (the absolute value of b).
• |a| = √(a2)
Squaring a makes it positive or zero (for a as a Real Number). Then
taking the square root will "undo" the squaring, but leave it positive
or zero.
• |u| = a is the same as u = ±a and vice versa
 Absolute Value Properties

Example: solve |x+2|=5

Using "|u| = a is the same as u = ±a":
this: |x+2|=5
is the same as this: x+2 = ±5
Which will have two solutions:
x+2 = −5 x+2 = +5
x = −7 x=3
• What is |0| ?
• What is |-2.75| ?
• What is |2 − 7| ?
• What is -|5 - 9| ?
• What is -|52| ?
• What is ?
 Absolute Value Properties

Example:
• Simplify | 0 – 6 |
• Simplify | 5 – 2 |
• Simplify | 2 – 5 |
• Simplify | 0(–4) |
• Simplify | 2 + 3(–4) |
• Simplify –| –4 |
• Simplify –| (–2)2 |
• Simplify –| –2 |2
• Simplify (–| –2 |)2
 Complex Numbers

• A Complex Number is a combination of a Real Number and

an Imaginary Number.

• The "unit" imaginary number (like 1 for Real Numbers) is i, which

is the square root of -1

• Examples:
1+i 39 + 3i 0.8 - 2.2i -2 + πi √2 + i/2
 Complex Numbers

The imaginary is defined to be:

Then:

Example:
• Simplify
= = =3 =3
• Simplify
• Simplify
• Simplify
 Complex Numbers

• A Complex Number has a real part and an imaginary part.

• But either part can be 0, so all Real Numbers and Imaginary

Numbers are also Complex Numbers.

Complex Number Real Part Imaginary Part

3 + 2i 3 2
5 5 0
-6i 0 -6
 Complex Numbers

Adding Complex Numbers

• To add two complex numbers we add each element separately:
(a+b ) + (c+d ) = (a+c) + (b+d)

Example:
• (3 + 2 ) + (1 + 7 ) = (4 + 9 )
• Simplify 2 + 3
2 + 3 = (2 + 3) = 5
• Simplify 16 – 5
16 – 5 = (16 – 5) = 11
 Complex Numbers

Multiplying Complex Numbers

• To multiply complex numbers:
Each part of the first complex number gets multiplied by
each part of the second complex number

• Firsts: a × c
• Outers: a × d
• Inners: b × c
• Lasts: b × d

(a+b)(c+d) = ac + ad + bc + bd2
 Complex Numbers

Example:
• (3 + 2i)(1 + 7i)
(3 + 2i)(1 + 7i) = 3×1 + 3×7i + 2i×1+ 2i×7i
= 3 + 21i + 2i + 14i2
= 3 + 21i + 2i - 14 (because i2 = -1)
= -11 + 23i
• (1 + i)2
(1 + i)2 = (1 + i)(1 + i) = 1×1 + 1×i + 1×i + i2
= 1 + 2i - 1 (because i2 = -1)
= 0 + 2i

• Multiply and simplify (3i)(4i)

• Multiply and simplify (i)(2i)(–3i)
 Complex Numbers

Note this last problem we can see that so we conclude that the
pattern of powers, signs, 1's, and 's is a cycle:

• To calculate any high power of i, you can convert it to a lower

power by taking the closest multiple of 4 that's no bigger than the
exponent & subtracting this multiple from the exponent.
 Complex Numbers

Example:
• Simplify
== =
• Simplify
• Simplify
• Simplify
• Solve 3 – 4 = x + y
• Simplify (2 + 3 ) + (1 – 6 )
• Simplify (5 – 2 ) – (–4 – )
• Simplify (2 – )(3 + 4 )
 Complex Numbers

Another rule of Multiplying Complex Numbers

(a+bi)(c+di) = (ac-bd) + (ad+bc)I

Example:
• (3 + 2i)(1 + 7i) = (3×1 - 2×7) + (3×7 + 2×1)i = -11 + 23i

Why Does That Rule Work?

(a+bi)(c+di) = ac + adi + bci + bdi2
= ac + adi + bci - bd (because i2=-1)
= (ac - bd) + (ad + bc)i (gathering like terms)
 Conjugates

• A conjugate is where we change the sign in the middle like this:

• A conjugate is often written with a bar over it:

Example: 5 - 3i = 5 + 3i
Solve the following:
• 7 - 2i =
• 2i - 3 =
• 6 + 9i =
 Complex Numbers

Dividing Complex Numbers

• The conjugate is used to help division.
• The trick is to multiply both top and bottom by the conjugate of
the bottom.

Example: Do this Division:

Multiply top and bottom by the conjugate of 4 - 5i :

=
 Complex Numbers

Now remember that i2 = -1, so:

=

Add Like Terms (and notice how on the bottom 20i - 20i cancels out!)
=
We should then put the answer back into a + bi form:
= +
 Complex Numbers

Examples:
• =
• =
• =
• =
• =
• =
 Complex Numbers

Examples:
• =
• =
• =
• If = , find the value of a.
• Find
 Logarithms

In its simplest form, a logarithm answers the question:

How many of one number do we multiply to get another number?
Example:
• How many 2s do we multiply to get 8?
• Answer: 2 × 2 × 2 = 8, so we needed to multiply 3 of the 2s to get 8
So the logarithm is 3
How to Write it
• We write "the number of 2s we need to multiply to get 8 is 3" as:
log2(8) = 3
So these two things are the same:
 Logarithms

The number we are multiplying is called the "base", so we can say:

• "the logarithm of 8 with base 2 is 3"
• or "log base 2 of 8 is 3"
• or "the base-2 log of 8 is 3"
Notice we are dealing with three numbers:
1. The base: the number we are multiplying (a "2" in the previous
example)
2. how many times to use it in a multiplication (3 times, which is
the logarithm)
3. The number we want to get (an "8")
Example: What is log5(625) ... ?
We are asking "how many 5s need to be multiplied to get 625?"
5 × 5 × 5 × 5 = 625, so we need 4 of the 5s
Answer: log5(625) = 4
 Logarithms

Exponents and Logarithms are related

The logarithm tells us what the exponent is

In this example the "base" is 2 and the "exponent" is 3:

So the logarithm answers the question:

What exponent do we need
(for one number to become another number) ?
 Logarithms

The general case is:

Example: What is log10(100) ... ?

102 = 100
So an exponent of 2 is needed to make 10 into 100, and:
log10(100) = 2
Example: What is log3(81) ... ?
34 = 81
So an exponent of 4 is needed to make 3 into 81, and:
log3(81) = 4
 Logarithms

Exponential Form Logarithmic Form

23 8 log 2 8 3
12  4 16 log 16  4
1
2

51 5 log5 5 1
34 0 1 log 1 0
3
4

• Example : Solve
log 4 x  32 .
log 4 x  32
x 4
3
2

x 8
 Logarithms

Common Logarithms: Base 10

• Sometimes a logarithm is written without a base, like this:
log(100)
This usually means that the base is really 10.
For all positive numbers x,
log x log10 x.
• It is how many times we need to use 10 in a multiplication, to get
our desired number.

• =
Example: log(1000) = log10(1000) = 3

• =
• log⁡ =
 Logarithms

Example:
Write each equation in its equivalent exponential form.
• 2 = log5 x
• 3 = logb 64
• log3 7 = y

Natural Logarithms: Base "e“

Another base that is often used is e (Euler's Number) which is about
2.71828.

Example: ln(7.389) = loge(7.389) ≈ 2

Because 2.718282 ≈ 7.389
 Properties of Logarithms

You have already been exposed to certain properties of logarithms

that follow directly from the definition.
is equivalent to for > 0 , b > 0 and b ≠ 1

General Properties

1. logb 1 = 0

2. logb b = 1

3. logb bx = x
4. b logb x = x
 Properties of Logarithms

Properties of Common Logarithms

1. log 1 = 0
2. log 10 = 1
3. log 10x = x
4. 10 log x = x
Examples: log 4 4 =
log 8 1 =
3 log 3 6 =
log 5 5 3 =
2 log 2 7 =
 Properties of Logarithms

Properties of Natural Logarithms

1. ln 1 = 0
2. ln e = 1
3. ln ex = x
4. e ln x = x
Examples:

• e log e 6 =
• log e e 3 =
 Properties of Logarithms

Examples:

• ln =
• =
• =
• log 1000=
• log
 Properties of Logarithms

Exponents and Logarithms work well together because they "undo"

each other (so long as the base "a" is the same):

Doing ax, and then the logarithm, gives you x back again:
Doing the logarithm, then ax , gives you x back again:

Example: what is x in log3(x) = 5

 Properties of Logarithms

Example: what is x in log3(x) = 5

We can use an exponent (with a base of 3) to "undo" the logarithm:

Start with

We want to "undo" the log so we can get "x ="

Use the Exponential Function (on both sides!):

And we know that , so: x = 35

Answer: x = 243

Example: Calculate y in y= log4 ()

 Properties of Logarithms

Properties of Logarithms

• (m × n) = m + n

• () = m – n

• () = -n

• = r (m )
 Properties of Logarithms

Example:
• Expand log3(2x)

log3(2x) = log3(2) + log3(x)

• Expand log4( 16/x )

log4( )= log4(16) – log4(x)

log4(16) = 2

log4( ) = 2 – log4(x)

• Expand log5(x3).

log5(x3) = 3 · log5(x) = 3log5(x)

 Properties of Logarithms

Example:
• Expand the following:
= - = + -
= + 4-

• Expand the following:

 Properties of Logarithms

Expand the following:

= -

= + )- (+)

= + - -

=2+ 4 - 4-3
 Properties of Logarithms

Simplify the following:

• +
+ =
• -
- =
• 3-4+
3-4+ = - +
= + - = -
=
 Properties of Logarithms

Expand the following:

=
=

Simplify the following:

=
 Properties of Logarithms

Example:
• Let = 0.3869 , = 0.6131 and =0.8982.
Using these values, evaluate .
Since 10 = 2 × 5, then:
(10) = (2 × 5) =(2) + (5)
Since I have the values for (2) and (5), I can evaluate:
(2) + (5) = 0.3869 + 0.8982 = 1.2851
Then = 1.2851.
• Let = 0.3869 , = 0.6131 and =0.8982.
Using these values, evaluate .
Since 9 = , then:
(9) = () = 2(3)
Since I have the value for (3), then I can evaluate:
2logb(3) = 2(0.6131) = 1.2262
Then = 1.2262.
 Properties of Logarithms

Example:
• Let = 0.3869 , = 0.6131 and =0.8982.

Since 7.5 = 15 ÷ 2, then:

Using these values, evaluate .

(7.5) = (15 ÷ 2) = (15) – (2)

And 15 = 5 × 3, then:
(15) – (2) = [(5) + (3)] – (2)
= (5) + (3) – (2)
And now I can evaluate:
(5) + (3) – (2)
= 0.8982 + 0.6131 – 0.3869 = 1.1244
Then = 1.1244.
 Properties of Logarithms

Change of Base Rule

• What this rule says, in practical terms, is that you can evaluate a
non-standard-base log by converting it to the fraction of the form
"(standard-base log of the argument) divided by (same-standard-
base log of the non-standard-base)". I keep this straight by looking at
the position of things. In the original log, the argument is "above"
the base (since the base is subscripted), so I leave things that way
when I split them up:
 Properties of Logarithms

Example:

• Evaluate .

• Convert to base 5.

• Convert ln(4) to an expression written in terms of the common log.

 Quadratic Equations

• A Quadratic Equation is one which can be written in the form

a+ b + c = 0 a≠0
• where a, b and c are given numbers and x is the unknown whose
value(s) we wish to find.
For example
2+ 7 - 3 = 0 + +1 = 0 0.5 + 3+9 = 0
• Frequently, quadratic equations occur in non-standard form but
where necessary they can be rearranged into standard.
For example
3+5 =8 can be re-written as 3+5 –8=0
2=8 –9 can be re-written as 2 – 8 +9 = 0
1+= can be re-written as + –1=0
 Solving Quadratic Equations

• To solve a quadratic equation we must find values of the unknown

which make the left-hand and right-hand sides equal.
• Such values are known as solutions or roots of the quadratic
equation.

Example:
• Verify that = 2 and = 3 are both solutions of – 5 + 6 = 0

The techniques used for solving quadratic equations are described as

follows:
• Square Root Property
• Quadratic Formula
• Substitution
• Factorization
 Solving Quadratic Equations

• Factoring Quadratics
A "quadratic" is a polynomial that looks like a+ b + c ,where "a", "b",
and "c" are just numbers.
• For the easy case of factoring, you will find two numbers that will
not only multiply to equal the constant term "c", but also add up to
equal "b", the coefficient on the x-term. For example:
 Factor + 5 + 6.
I need to find factors of 6 that add up to5. Since 6 can be written as the
product of 2 and 3, and since 2 + 3 = 5, then I'll use 2 and 3.
( )( )
Then I'll write in the two numbers that I found above:
( + 2)( + 3)
This is the answer: 2 + 5 + 6 = ( + 2)( + 3)
 Solving Quadratic Equations
 Factor + 7 + 6.
The constant term is 6, which can be written as the product
of 2 and 3 or of 1 and 6. But 2 + 3 = 5, so 2 and 3 are not the numbers I
need in this case. On the other hand, 1 + 6 = 7, so I'll use 1 and 6:
2
+ 7 + 6 = (+ 1)( + 6)
• Note that the order doesn't matter in multiplication, so the above
answer could equally correctly be written as "( + 6)( + 1)".
 Factor – 5 + 6.
The constant term is 6, but the middle coefficient is negative. Since I
multiplied to a positive six, then the factors must have the same sign.
Since I'm adding to a negative (–5), then both factors must be negative.
So rather than using 2 and 3, as in the first example, this time I will
use –2 and –3:
– 5 + 6 = ( – 2)( – 3)
 Solving Quadratic Equations

Determining the factors signs:

• If c is +ve , then the factors you're looking for are either both +ve

or else both – ve
• If b is +ve , then the factors are +ve
• If b is – ve, then the factors are – ve
• If c is – ve , then the factors you're looking for are of alternating

signs ; that is, one is – ve and one is + ve .

• If b is +ve , then the larger factor is +ve
• If b is – ve , then the larger factor is – ve
 Solving Quadratic Equations

 Factor – 7 + 6.
In this case, I am multiplying to a positive six, so the factors are either both
positive or both negative. I am adding to a negative seven, so the factors are
both negative. The factors of 6that add up to 7 are 1 and 6, so I will use
–1 and –6:
2
– 7 + 6 = (– 1)( – 6)
 Factor – – 6.
The middle term is negative. I still want factors with opposite signs, and
I still want factors that are one apart, but this time the larger factor gets
the – ve sign:
2
– – 6 = ( – 3)( + 2)
• Factor – 5 – 6.
2
– 5 – 6 = ( – 6)( + 1)
 Solving Quadratic Equations

 Factor – 7 + 6.
 Factor 2 + – 6.
 Factor 2 – 4 – 16
 if 2 – 7 – 4 = 0, then find the value of .
 if 2 – 5 = 12, then find the value of .
 Solve: ( +2) = + 20
 Solve: 9 (4 +2) – 10 = 8 + 25
 Solving Quadratic Equations

The Square Root Property

For any real number, k ,if =k, then = or = – .
Note: The solution may also be written as read x equals “plus or
minus the square root of k (±)
Example: = 81
=±
=±
• If 3 + 75 =0 , find the value of
• If = 20 , find the value of w
• Use the square root property to solve the equations:
• = 100
• 8 + 72 =0
• = 18
 Solving Quadratic Equations

Perfect Square
For a perfect square trinomial with a leading coefficient of 1, the constant
term is the square of one-half the linear term coefficient.
For example:

The general form of a perfect square trinomial is:

+b +n if n=
• The process to create a perfect square trinomial is called completing
the square.
Example:
 Solving Quadratic Equations

Example:
Determine the value of n that makes the polynomial a perfect square
trinomial. Then factor the expression as the square of a binomial.
a. + 12 + n
b. - 26 + n
c. + 11 + n
d. - + n
The expressions are in the form + b + n The value of n equals the square
of one-half the linear term coefficient
e. + 12 + n
n= = = 36
+ 12 + 36
Factored form
 Solving Quadratic Equations

b. - 26 + n
n= = = 169
- 26 + 169
Factored form
c. + 11 + n
n= =
+ 11 +
Factored form
d. - +n
n= = = =
- +
Factored form
 Solving Quadratic Equations

Example:
Determine the value of n that makes the polynomial a perfect square
trinomial. Then factor.

a. + 20 + n
b. - 16 + n
c. -5 +n
d. + +n
 Solving Quadratic Equations

• Quadratic Formula
If we solve a general quadratic equation a+ b + c =0 (a≠0)
by completing the square and using the square root property, the result
is a formula that gives the solutions for in terms of a, b, and c.
Solving Quadratic Equations
 Solving Quadratic Equations

Quadratic Formula
For any quadratic equation of the form a+ b + c =0 (a≠0)
the solutions are
 Solving Quadratic Equations

Example:
• Solving a Quadratic Equation by Using the Quadratic Formula
 Solving Quadratic Equations

There are two rational solutions, and .

Example:
Solving a Quadratic Equation by Using the Quadratic Formula
 Solving Quadratic Equations

Solving Equations by Using Substitution

 Solving Quadratic Equations

Solving Equations by Using Substitution

 Solving Quadratic Equations

Example:
Solve the equation:
Solving Quadratic Equations
 Triangles

• A triangle has three sides and three angles

• The three angles always add to 180°

Equilateral, Isosceles and Scalene

• There are three special names given to triangles that tell how
many sides (or angles) are equal.
 Triangles

• There can be 3, 2 or no equal

sides/angles:
 Triangles

What Type of Angle?

• Triangles can also have

names that tell you
what type of angle is inside:
 Triangles

Perimeter

• The perimeter is the distance around the edge of the triangle: just add
up the three sides:
 Triangles

Area
The area is half of the base times height.

"b" is the distance along the base

"h" is the height (measured at right angles to the base)

Area = ½ × b × h

The formula works for all triangles.

Note: a simpler way of writing the formula is bh/2
 Triangles

Example: What is the area of this triangle?

(Note: 12 is the height, not the length of the left-hand side)

Height = h = 12
Base = b = 20
Area = ½ × b × h = ½ × 20 × 12 = 120
 Introduction to Trigonometry

Trigonometry ... is all about triangles.

Right Angled Triangle:

• The triangle of most interest is the right-angled triangle which is shown by
the little box in the corner. We usually know another angle θ.
• The triangle sides are named as follows:
• Adjacent is adjacent (next to) to the angle θ
• Opposite is opposite the angle θ
• the longest side is the Hypotenuse
 Introduction to Trigonometry

"Sine, Cosine and Tangent"

Trigonometry is good at find a missing side or angle in a triangle.
The special functions Sine, Cosine and Tangent help

They are simply one side of a right-angled triangle divided by another.

For any angle "θ":

Sine Function: sin(θ) = Opposite / Hypotenuse

Cosine Function: cos(θ) = Adjacent / Hypotenuse

Tangent Function: tan(θ) = Opposite / Adjacent

(Sine, Cosine and Tangent are often abbreviated to sin, cos and tan.)
 Introduction to Trigonometry

Example: What is the sine of 35°?

Using this triangle
sin(35°) = Opposite / Hypotenuse = 2.8/4.9 = 0.57...

Example: What is the missing length here?

• We know the Hypotenuse
• We want to know the Opposite

Sine is the ratio of Opposite / Hypotenuse

 Introduction to Trigonometry

Example: Find the value of “d”

 Solving Triangles

"Solving" means finding missing sides and angles

When we know any 3 of the sides or angles ...

... we can find the other 3

(Except for 3 angles, because we need at least one side to find how big
the triangle is.)
 Solving Triangles

1. The angles always add to 180°:

A + B + C = 180°
When you know two angles you can find the third.

2. Law of Sines (the Sine Rule):

When there is an angle opposite a side, this equation comes to the rescue.

Note: angle A is opposite side a, B is opposite b, and C is opposite c .

 Solving Triangles

3. Law of Cosines (the Cosine Rule):

A + B + C = 180°

• This is the hardest to use (and remember) but it is sometimes needed

to get you out of difficult situations.
• It is an enhanced version of the Pythagoras Theorem that works
on any triangle.
 Pythagoras' Theorem

When a triangle has a right angle (90°) ...

... and squares are made on each of the three sides, ...
... then the biggest square has the exact same area as the other two
squares put together!
It is called "Pythagoras' Theorem" and can be written in one short equation:

a2 + b 2 = c2
 Pythagoras' Theorem

Note:
• c is the longest side of the triangle
• a and b are the other two sides

The longest side of the triangle is called the "hypotenuse", so the formal
definition is:
In a right angled triangle: the square of the hypotenuse
is equal to the sum of the squares of the other
two sides.
 Pythagoras' Theorem

Example: A "3,4,5" triangle has a right angle in it.

Let's check if the areas are the same:

32 + 4 2 = 5 2
Calculating this becomes:
9 + 16 = 25
 Pythagoras' Theorem

Example: Solve this triangle.

a2 + b 2 = c 2
52 + 122 = c2
25 + 144 = c2
169 = c2
c2 = 169
c = √169
c = 13
 Pythagoras' Theorem

Example: Solve this triangle.

Example: What is the diagonal distance across a square of size 1?

 Pythagoras' Theorem

Example: Does this triangle have a Right Angle?

Example: Does an 8, 15, 16 triangle have a Right Angle?

Example: Does this triangle have a Right Angle?
 Solving Triangles by
Reflection

• Example: A 5ft ladder leans against a wall as shown.

What is the angle between the ladder and the wall?

This is easy to solve by using Reflection:

Here is the triangle with its reflection

Together they make an equilateral triangle (all sides equal).

 Solving Triangles

• If you need to solve a triangle right now choose one of the six options
below:
Which Sides or Angles do you know already?
 Solving Triangles

Which Sides or Angles do you know already?

 Solving Triangles

Examples: Solve the following triangles.

 Solving Triangles by
Reflection

So the angle between the ladder and the wall is half of 60º

= 30º
 Solving Triangles by
Reflection

Finding Length
• We can use the same idea to find an unknown length.
Example: Alex has a laser that measures distance.
By standing some distance from the tree Alex measures 42mto the top of the
tree at an angle of 30º.
What is the height of the tree?
 Solving Triangles by
Reflection

Here is the triangle and its reflection:

Once again the triangle and its reflection make an equilateral triangle.
So, we know the height of the tree must be half of 42m

= 21m
 Derivatives

It is all about slope!

Slope =

We can find an average slope between two points

 Derivatives

But how do we find the slope at a point?

There is nothing to measure!

But with derivatives we use a small difference ...

... then have it shrink towards zero.
 Derivatives

Find a Derivative

To find the derivative of a function y = f(x) we use the slope formula:

Slope = =

And (from diagram) we see that:

x changes from x to x+Δx

y changes from f(x) to f(x+Δx)
 Derivatives

To find a Derivative follow these steps:

1. Fill in this slope formula: =

2. Simplify it as best we can
3. Then make Δx shrink towards zero.

Example: Find the derivative for the function f(x) = x2

We know f(x) = x2, and can calculate f(x+Δx) :
Start with: f(x+Δx) = (x+Δx)2
Expand (x + Δx)2: f(x+Δx) = x2 + 2x Δx + (Δx)2
 Derivatives

• The slope formula is:

• Put in f(x+Δx) and f(x):

• Simplify (x2 and −x2 cancel):

• Simplify more (divide through by Δx): = 2x + Δx

• And then as Δx heads towards 0 we get: = 2x

Result: the derivative of x2 is 2x

 Derivatives

We write dx instead of "Δx heads towards 0", so "the derivative of" is

commonly written
x2 = 2x
"The derivative of x2 equals 2x"
or simply "d by dx of x2 equals 2x“
What does x2 = 2x mean?
• It means that, for the function x2, the slope
or "rate of change" at any point is 2x.
• So when x=2 the slope is 2x = 4, as shown here:
• Or when x=5 the slope is 2x = 10, and so on.
 Derivatives

Note: sometimes f’(x) is also used for "the derivative of":

f’(x) = 2x
"The derivative of f(x) equals 2x"
or simply "f-dash of x equals 2x“

Example: What is x3 ?
We know f(x) = x3, and can calculate f(x+Δx) :
Start with: f(x+Δx) = (x+Δx)3
Expand (x + Δx)3: f(x+Δx) = x3 + 3x2 Δx + 3x (Δx)2 + (Δx)3
 Derivatives

• The slope formula is:

• Put in f(x+Δx) and f(x):

• Simplify (x2 and −x2 cancel):

• Simplify more (divide through = 3x2 + 3x Δx + (Δx)2

by Δx):
• And then as Δx heads towards x3 = 3x2
0 we get:
 Derivatives Rules

Here are useful rules to help you work out the derivatives of many
functions .
Note: the little mark ’ means "Derivative of".
Common Functions Function Derivative
Constant c 0
Line x 1
ax a
Square x2 2x
Square Root √x (½)x-½
Exponential ex ex
ax ln(a) ax
Logarithms ln(x) 1/x
loga(x) 1 / (x ln(a))
 Derivatives Rules

Common Functions Function Derivative

Trigonometry (x is in radians) sin(x) cos(x)

cos(x) −sin(x)

tan(x) sec2(x)

Inverse Trigonometry sin-1(x)

cos-1(x)

tan-1(x)
 Derivatives Rules

Common Functions Function Derivative

Multiplication by constant cf cf’
Power Rule xn nxn−1
Sum Rule f+g f’ + g’
Difference Rule f-g f’ − g’
Product Rule fg f g’ + f’ g
Quotient Rule f/g (f’ g − g’ f )/g2
Reciprocal Rule 1/f −f’/f2
Chain Rule fºg (f’ º g) × g’
Chain Rule (using ’ ) f(g(x)) f’(g(x))g’(x)
Chain Rule (using ) =
 Derivatives Rules

"The derivative of" is also written

So sin(x) and sin(x)’ are the same thing, just written differently

Example: What is the derivative of sin(x) ?

From the table above it is listed as being cos(x)
It can be written as:
sin(x) = cos(x)
or
sin(x)’ = cos(x)
 Derivatives Rules

Power Rule
Example: What is x3 ?
We can use the Power Rule, where n=3:
xn = nxn−1
x3 = 3x3−1 = 3x2
Example: What is ?
1/x is also x-1 so we can use the Power Rule, where n = −1
xn = nxn−1
x−1 = −1x−1−1 = −x−2
 Derivatives Rules

Multiplication by constant
Example: What is 5x3 ?
the derivative of cf = cf’
the derivative of 5f = 5f’
We know (from the Power Rule):
x3 = 3x3−1 = 3x2
5x3 = 5 x3 = 5 × 3x2 = 15x2
 Derivatives Rules

Sum Rule
Example: What is the derivative of x2+x3 ?
The Sum Rule says:
the derivative of f + g = f’ + g’
So we can work out each derivative separately and then add them.
Using the Power Rule:
x2 = 2x
x3 = 3x2
the derivative of x2 + x3 = 2x + 3x2
 Derivatives Rules

Difference Rule
It doesn't have to be x, we can differentiate with respect to, for example, v:
Example: What is (v3−v4)?
The Difference Rule says
the derivative of f − g = f’ − g’
So we can work out each derivative separately and then subtract them.
Using the Power Rule:
v3 = 3v2
v4 = 4 v3
the derivative of v3 − v4 = 3v2 − 4v3
 Derivatives Rules

Sum, Difference, Constant Multiplication And Power Rules

Example: What is (5z2 + z3 − 7z4)?
Using the Power Rule:
z2 = 2z
z3 = 3z2
z4 = 4z3
(5z2 + z3 − 7z4) = 5 × 2z + 3z2 − 7 × 4z3 = 10z + 3z2 − 28z3
 Derivatives Rules

Product Rule
Example: What is the derivative of cos(x)sin(x) ?
The Product Rule says:
the derivative of fg = f g’ + f’ g
In our case:
f = cos
g = sin
cos(x) = −sin(x)
sin(x) = cos(x)
the derivative of cos(x)sin(x) = cos(x)cos(x) − sin(x)sin(x) = cos2(x) − sin2(x)
 Derivatives Rules

Reciprocal Rule
Example: What is (1/x)?
The Reciprocal Rule says:
the derivative of 1/f = −f’/f2
With f(x)= x, we know that f’(x) = 1
So:
the derivative of =
Which is the same result we got above using the Power Rule.
 Derivatives Rules

Chain Rule
Example: What is sin(x2)?
sin(x2) is made up of sin() and x2:
f(g) = sin(g)
g(x) = x2
The Chain Rule says:
the derivative of f(g(x)) = f'(g(x))g'(x)
The individual derivatives are:
f'(g) = cos(g)
g'(x) = 2x

sin(x2) = cos(g(x)) (2x) = 2x cos(x2)

 Integration

Integration is a way of adding slices to find the whole

Integration can be used to find areas, volumes, central points and many
useful things. But it is easiest to start with finding the area under the
curve of a function like this:

What is the area under y = f(x) ?

 Integration

Slices
• We could calculate the function at a few points
and add up slices of width Δx like this (but the
answer won't be very accurate)

• We can make Δx a lot smaller and add up many

small slices (answer is getting better)
 Integration

• And as the slices approach zero in width, the

answer approaches the true answer.

We now write dx to mean the Δx slices are approaching zero in width.

That is a lot of adding up!
But we don't have to add them up, as there is a "shortcut". Because

Finding an Integral is the reverse of finding a Derivative

 Integration

Example: What is an integral of 2x?

We know that the derivative of x2 is 2x ...

... so an integral of 2x is x2

Notation

The symbol for "Integral" is a stylish "S“ (for "Sum", the idea of summing slices):
 Integration

After the Integral Symbol we put the function we want to find the integral
of (called the Integrand),and then finish with dx to mean the slices go in
the x direction (and approach zero in width).
And here is how we write the answer:

Plus C
We wrote the answer as x2 but why + C
 Integration

Plus C
It is the "Constant of Integration". It is there
because of all the functions whose derivative
is 2x

• The derivative of x2+4 is 2x, and the derivative of x2+99 is also 2x, and
so on! Because the derivative of a constant is zero.
• So when we reverse the operation (to find the integral) we only
know 2x, but there could have been a constant of any value.
• So we wrap up the idea by just writing + C at the end.
 Integration

Tap and Tank

• Integration is like filling a tank from a tap.

• The input (before integration) is the flow rate from the tap.
• Integrating the flow (adding up all the little bits of water) gives
us the volume of water in the tank.
 Integration

Example: (assuming the flow is in liters per minute) after 3 minutes (x=3):
the flow rate has reached 2x = 2×3 = 6 liters/min,
and the volume has reached x2 = 32 = 9 liters.
We can do the reverse, too:
• Imagine you don't know the
flow rate.
• You only know the volume is
increasing by x2.
• We can go in reverse (using
the derivative, which gives us the slope) and find that the flow rate is 2x.
 Integration

Example: at 2 minutes the slope of the volume is 4, meaning it is

increasing at 4 liters/minute, which is the flow rate. Likewise at 3 minutes
the slope is 6, etc.

Integral and Derivative are opposites.

We can write that down this way:
The integral of the flow rate 2x tells us the volume of water:

And the slope of the volume increase x2+C gives us back the flow rate
(x2 + C) = 2x
 Integration Rules

Common Functions Function Integral

Multiplication by constant dx cdx

Power Rule (n≠-1) dx +C
Sum Rule dx dx + dx
Difference Rule dx dx - dx

Exponential dx ex + C

dx +C
dx x ln(x) − x + C
 Integration Rules

Common Functions Function Integral

Trigonometry (x in radians) dx sin(x) + C

dx -cos(x) + C
dx tan(x) + C

Example: what is the integral of sin(x) ?

From the table above it is listed as being −cos(x) + C
It is written as:
 Integration Rules

Power Rule
Example: What is dx ?
The question is asking "what is the integral of x3 ?"
We can use the Power Rule, where n=3:

Example: What is dx ?
 Integration Rules

Multiplication by constant
Example: What is dx ?
We can move the 6 outside the integral:
dx = 6 dx
And now use the Power Rule on x2:
=6 +C
Simplify:
= 2x3 + C
 Integration Rules

Sum Rule
Example: What is dx ?
Use the Sum Rule:
dx = dx + dx
Work out the integral of each (using table above):
= sin x + + C
 Integration Rules

Difference Rule
Example: What is dw ?
Use the Difference Rule:
dw = dw - dw
Then work out the integral of each (using table above):
= ew − 3w + C
 Integration Rules

Sum, Difference, Constant Multiplication & Power Rules

Example: What is dz ?
Use the Sum and Difference Rule:
dz = dz + dz - dz
Constant Multiplication:
= dz + 4 dz - 6 dz

Power Rule:
+ -
Simplify:
=