LOGIC

BOOK
Argument and
non argument
 INTRODUCTIO
N

What is an Argument?
A statement or series of statements that aim to establish
a conclusion supported by premises (reasons or
evidence).

What is a Non-Argument?
A passage that provides information, describes, or
expresses opinions without proving a point
Features of an Argument Content:

•Contains a claim or conclusion.

•Supported by premises or
evidence.
 Keywords to look for:

Therefore Because Since Thus

 Example of an argument

Climate change is impacting health in a

myriad of ways, including by leading to
Passage death and illness from increasingly
frequent extreme weather events, such as
heat waves, storms, and floods, the
disruption of food systems, increases
in zoonoses and food-, water-, and vector-
borne diseases, and mental health issues.
 Explanation

Supporting
Claim premises

• Extreme weather events

causing illness and death.
Climate change is • Disruption of food systems.
impacting health. • Rise in zoonotic and vector-
borne diseases.
• Mental health impacts.
• Social determinants of health
undermined
VISUAL
DIAGRAM
 Non argument

Lack of
conclusion or
claim

Features of Provides facts,

non- descriptions, or opinions
without reasoning.
argument

No premises supporting
a specific conclusion
 Example of non argument
Passage

Socrates is the first Greek philosopher whose

life story and logical methods have survived
mostly intact. He’s also noteworthy for
claiming to be uncommitted to any of the big
world-building theories that came from the
philosophers before him. Instead of saying
he knew the answers to the big questions,
he’d say he knew that he did not know the
answers. Statements of this kind are now
called Socratic wisdom
Types of fallacies
 Types of Logical fallacies

-01- -02- -03- -04-

Fallacies of
Fallacies of defective Fallacies of Fallacies of
relevance induction presumption ambiguity
 Relevance
Appeal to force
A type of argument that uses
threat of force to convince
someone to accept a conclusion.

Appeal to populace

a logical fallacy that uses

popularity to imply quality or
truth.
 Relevance

Appeal to pity Strawman

A logical fallacy that A type of informal fallacy

attempts to persuade that occurs when someone
someone by manipulating misrepresents an
their emotions of pity or opponent's argument and
guilt. then refutes that
misrepresentation instead of
the original argument
Red herring

Fallacy that uses

Relevance
irrelevant information
to distract from the
main topic.
Guilt by
association

a logical
fallacy that
occurs when
someone is
judged
based on
their
association
with a group.
 Fallacies of defective
induction

Argument of ignorance
a logical fallacy that occurs when someone
claims a statement is true or false because there
is no evidence or vice versa.

Appeal to inappropriate authority

A fallacy that assumes that because
someone has an authority, we should
listen to that person.
False cause
Occurs when someone incorrectly
assumes that a causal relation
exists between two things or
events.
Presumption

Complex
question

A question
that has a
complex
presupposition
. Fallacy of
accident

Fallacy that
occurs when a
general rule is
applied to an
exceptional
 Ambiguity

Accent Amphiboly
Equivocation
Fallacy that occurs A type of informal
Fallacy that occurs
when a word or common fallacy
when the meaning
phrase is used that involves
of a statement is
with different grammatical
changed by
meanings in an ambiguity.
emphasizing a
argument. Example:
different word.
“Burgers are served with
French fries”
“Better to be LATE than LATE”. Don't count the days, make
the days count
Don't count the days, make
the days count
Don't count the days, make
the days count
Inductive and
deductive
arguments
 • Inductive arguments start
with specific observations
INDUCTIVE and make a general
ARGUMENTS conclusion.

• They are like puzzles you

try to piece them together
to get to a final
conclusion.
 Example
The fictional character Sherlock Holmes is a master of induction.

Consider his description of how, upon first meeting Watson, he reasoned that
Watson had just come from Afghanistan:

“Observation with me is second nature. You appeared to be surprised when I told

you, on our first meeting, that you had come from Afghanistan.”
“You were told, no doubt.”
“Nothing of the sort. I knew you came from Afghanistan. From long habit the train
of thoughts ran so swiftly through my mind, that I arrived at the conclusion
without being conscious of intermediate steps. There were such steps,
however. The train of reasoning ran, ‘Here is a gentleman of a medical
type, but with the air of a military man. Clearly an army doctor, then.
He has just come from the tropics, for his face is dark, and that is not
the natural tint of his skin, for his wrists are fair. He has undergone
hardship and sickness, as his haggard face says clearly. His left arm
has been injured. He holds it in a stiff and unnatural manner. Where in
the tropics could an English army doctor have seen much hardship and got his
 Example

 This conviction statement from Judge David Cunanan from Kelly Anne Walz
Hit-and-Run case seems like it is based on inductive reasoning:
“The defendant’s vehicle damage, paint transfer and eyewitness testimony all point
to his involvement in the fatal collision… Justice has finally been served.”
(From Kelly Anne Walz Hit-and-Run, 2018)
 ● A top-down approach that
DEDUCTIVE starts with general ideas
ARGUMENTS or theories, and then
draws specific
conclusions.

● Deductive reasoning relies

on facts and rules
EXAMPLE

WHAT I DO
Rhetorical Questions
Rhetorical questions are those questions that are asked for
effect rather than to get an answer .In rheotorical
questions you don’t expect an answer because it is already
obvious or implied
For Example

Who doesn’t like chocolates ?

The Ultimate Driving Machine Campaign Of
BMW

The BMW campaign serves

as a rhetorical question
because the question “What
is an ultimate machine “? it
is already an established fact
that BMW is an ultimate
driving machine.
Winston Churchill speech of Freedom

Winston Churchill speech pf

freedom serves as a
rhetorical question.The
question “What is our aim
“? ,clearly indicates from his
speech that feedom is an
aim.
The Dark knight Movie

In Dark knight movie the famous

tag line of the joker “Why so
serious “?is a rhetorical
question because it doesnt
mean that he wants to ask an
actual answer from the person
he is speaking to ,rather he is
provoking discomfort or
confusion.
Filling in
Enthymematic
Argument
 • An enthymeme is a type of
argument in which one or
more premises or the
conclusion are unstated or
implied.
Enthymeme
Key points

• Common in everyday
conversation, rhetoric, and
persuasive discourse.
• Often, the missing parts are
easily inferred from context.
Demonstrating understanding of
Enthymeme
Let's break down examples of arguments with missing premises
or a missing conclusion and demonstrate how to identify and
reconstruct the full argument.

An example of an enthymeme, the Fourth Plebeian says:

Marked ye his words? He would not take the crown.
Therefore, it is certain he was not ambitious.

Alice Walker's "Beauty: When the Other Dancer Is the

Self“
: "My parents decide to buy my brothers guns. These are not 'real'
guns. They shoot 'BBs,' copper pellets my brothers say will kill
birds. Because I am a girl, I do not get a gun
Types of Enthymematic

•Categorical Enthymeme
•Relies on categories or classes of things.
•Example: "All doctors are smart, so Dr. Smith must be smart.“

•Causal Enthymeme
•Assumes a cause-and-effect relationship.
• Example: "She ate too much, so now she feels sick.“

•Conditional Enthymeme
•Implies a "if-then" relationship.
•Example: "If you study hard, you’ll pass the test, so you’ll pass the test if you
study hard."
 Filling in an Enthymeme Example

Example 1:
"She’s not qualified for the job; she doesn’t have the
experience."
Missing Premise: "Experience is necessary to qualify for
the job."
Reconstructed Argument:
Premise 1: "She doesn't have the experience."
Unstated Premise: "Experience is necessary to qualify for
the job."
Conclusion: "She is not qualified for the job."
 • Hasty Generalization:

Drawing a broad conclusion from a

small or unrepresentative
sample.

Example: "I met three engineers,

Common Logical and they were all smart, so all
Fallacies in engineers must be smart."
Enthymemes • Begging the Question:

Using the conclusion as one of the

premises.

Example: "God exists because the

Bible says so, and the Bible is
true because God wrote it."
Categorical propositions
 Categorial Propositions

Categorial Propositions are statements about

the relationship between two categories or
classes. They come in four main types :
• Universal affirmative
• Universal Negative
• Particular Affirmative
• Particular Negative
TYPES OF CATEGORIAL PROPOSITIONS

A E I O

ALL S ARE P SOME S ARE P

NO S ARE P SOME S ARE NOT P

Universal affirmative
The statement “All politicians are
liars” is a universal affirmative
because it asserts a generalization
that applies to the entire category
of “politicians.”

Meaning every member of

category S (politicians) belongs to
category P (liars).
Universal Negative

“NO COUNTRY IN THE

WORLD HAS A
POPULATION PROJECTION
THAT EXCEEDS 10 BILLION
BY 2100.”
Particular affirmative

“Over 1000
languages with
between 100 and 999
speakers”

It asserts that some

languages have a
small number of
speakers without
claiming that this
applies to all
Particular Negative

The statement “There are

many other plants.....
Dangerous for pets and
children” is a particular
negative because
It highlights that “some
plants are not safe” and
not all people recognize it.
Categorical syllogism
A categorical syllogism is a form of deductive
reasoning that consists of three categorical
statements

Major Premise: A general statement.

Minor Premise: A specific statement related to
the major premise.
Conclusion: A logical deduction based on the
two premises.
Rules for Valid Categorical Syllogism

A valid syllogism must follow specific rules.

Rule 1: The middle term must be distributed at least once.

Rule 2: If a term is distributed in the conclusion, it must be distributed in a premise.

Rule 3: Two negative premises are invalid.

Rule 4: A negative conclusion requires a negative premise.

 Analyzing the Syllogism Major
Premise: No education system can
succeed without qualified teachers.
• Form: Universal Negative (E)
Minor Premise: Pakistan's education system
lacks qualified teachers.
• Form: Particular Negative (O)

Example Conclusion: Therefore, Pakistan's education

system Figure and Mood:
• Figure: This is a Figure 4 syllogism, as the
middle term "education system without
qualified teachers" is the subject of the
major premise and the predicate of the
minor premise.
• Mood: The mood is EO, combining a
Universal Negative (E) and a Particular
Negative (O) statement cannot succeed
without training qualified teachers.
 This syllogism is valid. It
follows the correct logical
form for a Figure 4, EO
Validity mood syllogism. The
conclusion logically
follows from the two
premises.