Chapter 4-Gender
Chapter 4-Gender
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1. Historical Understanding of Gender and Sex:
o Historically, gender and sex were considered
synonymous, with rigid binary roles (male/female)
and defined societal responsibilities.
• Example: Men worked outside the home, while
women managed households and cared for
children.
2. Current Understanding of Gender and Sex:
o Progress in recognizing gender, sex, and
sexuality as distinct but interrelated concepts.
Understanding • Example: Some men now take on caregiving
of Gender and roles, while women work outside the home.
o Challenges remain, such as the persistent gender
Sex pay gap, where women earn less than men.
3. Binary Groupings and Social Impacts:
o Rigid categories of male/female,
masculine/feminine, and gay/straight
marginalize those who do not fit these norms.
• Example: Individuals outside these binaries
are often labeled deviant or treated unfairly.
o Non-Western cultures challenge these binaries:
• Two-spirited people in Native North
American cultures are recognized as a third
gender.
• Sambia tribe (Papua New Guinea) engages in
same-sex behaviour as part of cultural rites
without adopting binary labels like 3
gay/straight.
1. Gender as a Social Construct:
o Sex: Refers to biological traits (e.g., chromosomes,
anatomy, hormones).
• Example: External traits like genitalia and
internal traits like DNA determine biological
sex.
o Gender: Social roles, attitudes, and behaviors
linked to masculinity or femininity.
• Example: Stereotypes like men being strong
protectors and women being empathetic
nurturers.
o Gender includes:
• Gender Identity: Internal perception of
Gender as a gender (e.g., identifying as male, female, or
non-binary).
Social • Gender Expression: External display of
gender through dress, behavior, and
Construct demeanor.
2. Cultural Variations in Gender Roles:\
o Gender expectations vary across cultures:
• Arapesh culture (New Guinea): Men and
women share child-rearing and are expected
to be gentle and warm.
• Mundugamor culture (New Guinea): Both
genders are equally aggressive, with women
showing little interest in child-rearing.
3. Changing Gender Roles Over Time:
o Gender roles evolve as societal attitudes shift.
• Example: Men now take parental leave and act
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as primary caregivers, while women
4.Early Gender Understanding in Children:
o Flexible Understanding: Children distinguish gender early but
have a flexible understanding.
• Example: A child may identify someone with long hair and
a pink dress as a girl, but with short hair and jeans, they
may see them as a boy.
Gender as a o Parents/Guardians:
• Pass beliefs about gender roles through choices like toys,
Social •
clothes, chores, and discipline.
Example: Boys receive sports equipment, while girls get
Construct o Schools:
dolls.
o Media:
• Books, TV, movies, music, and social media reinforce the
idea that males should be masculine and females
feminine.
• Example: Action movies depict men as strong heroes,
while romantic comedies show women focused on beauty
and relationships.
6.Intersectionality of Gender: 5
o Gender experiences intersect with class, race, age, ethnicity,
1. Dominance and Hierarchies in Gender Roles:
o Dominant forms of masculinity and femininity are often unrealistic
and rooted in power and privilege.
o These ideals are used as standards to judge individuals' adherence to
societal expectations.
o Emphasized Femininity:
• Focused on beauty, passivity, and supporting men, reinforcing
gender inequality.
• Example: Women being valued for their physical appearance
over their achievements.
What happens to those who do not fully embody or outright reject dominant forms
of masculinity and femininity? 6
Dominance and Hierarchies in Gender Roles
3. Gendered Marketing in Children’s Toys
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Dominance and Hierarchies in
Gender Roles
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5. Hegemonic Masculinity and Violence (Jackson Katz):
• Taught Behaviors:
o Supports the notion that male violence is rooted in
society's inability to move away from hegemonic
masculinity
o Boys are taught that masculinity means domination,
aggression, and control.
o Peer groups, fathers, coaches, and media reinforce these
expectations.
o Example: In Gran Torino (2008), the male role model
teaches a boy to "man up" and learn how men "should"
talk.
Dominance • Media Reinforcement:
and o Mainstream media promotes violence as central to
masculinity.
Hierarchies o Examples:
Roles Viking."
• Shark Tale (2004): A father tells his son, "It’s a fish-
eat-fish world … you either take or get taken.”
• Impact of Hegemonic Masculinity:
o Violence is normalized as a go-to method for resolving
disputes and earning respect.
o Boys are discouraged from qualities like compassion,
empathy, and intellectual curiosity.
o Example: Boys avoid showing vulnerabilities to escape
ridicule, adopting a "tough guise."
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Dominance
and
Hierarchies
in Gender
Roles
6. Societal Impact of Gender Policing:
• Gender Police:
o Society enforces dominant masculinity, ridiculing boys who
show non-traditional qualities.
o Example: Boys face condemnation for being empathetic or
caring.
• Overall Impact:
o Encourages a culture of violence and inhibits emotional
growth in boys.
o Creates a dangerous societal climate where violence is seen
as a valid way to establish masculine credibility. 10
1. Historical and Systemic Patriarchy:
• Societies are predominantly patriarchal, leading to
systemic gender inequities embedded in social
institutions.
• Example: Male dominance in power, prestige, and
income distribution across major sectors.
2. Education:
• Access to Education:
o Women’s university attainment increased from 15%
Historical in 1991 to 35% in 2015, surpassing men at 30% in
2015.
and o Women are less likely to complete trades
certificates (7% vs. 15% for men) but more likely to
Systemic complete postsecondary education overall.
o Projection: By 2025, women in Canada will outnumber
Patriarchy men in postsecondary education 2:1 (OECD, 2012).
• Gendered Fields of Study:
o Women dominate in education, health sciences, and
social sciences (~75% of graduates in these fields).
o Men dominate STEM fields; in 2013, men were twice
as likely as women to pursue STEM fields.
o Example: Girls with high mathematical ability were
less likely to choose STEM than boys with lower
mathematical ability. Why do you think this is the
case?
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3. Employment:
Labour Market Participation:
o Gender participation gap reduced from 75.5% (1950) to 8.9% (2015) for
individuals aged 25–54.
o Women are overrepresented in part-time work (75.8% of part-time
workers in 2015 were women), often due to caregiving responsibilities.
Gendered Industries:
o Women dominate healthcare/social assistance (82.4%), education
(69.3%), and food services (58.5%).
o Men dominate construction (88.3%), utilities (77.8%), and mining/oil
extraction (80.5%).
Glass Ceiling:
o Women are concentrated in lower-level positions, even in female-
Patriarchy o Women earned $0.74 for every dollar men earned annually
(2014).
o Hourly pay: Women earned $25.88/hour compared to men’s
$28.92/hour, or $0.88 for every dollar earned by men.
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5. Government and Policy:
Objectives of Campaigns:
o Examine and address root causes of gender-based violence.
o Promote cultural shifts to challenge outdated, negative
concepts of manhood.
o Inspire men to recognize their potential to contribute to positive
change.
Impact of Campaigns:
o Raise awareness and engage men in addressing gender
violence.
o Promote gender equity and new, healthier visions of
masculinity. 16
o Empower bystanders and communities to take action against
1. Overview of the –Ness Model:
• Developed by Sam Killermann to deconstruct traditional binary
(male/female) and continuum models.
• Argues gender is limitless, and sex, gender identity, gender
expression, and attraction are independent yet interrelated
concepts.
Example: A biologically male person may identify as a woman,
express
themselves in non-traditional ways, and be attracted to any gender.
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7. Biological Sex:
• Definition: Refers to chromosomal, chemical, and anatomical traits
associated with males and females.
o Typical Male Traits: Penis, testes, XY chromosomes,
testosterone, facial hair, deep voice.
o Typical Female Traits: Ovaries, vulva, XX chromosomes,
estrogen, breasts, high-pitched voice.
• Binary Categories:
o Society pressures individuals to fit into rigid male/female
Ness Model binaries, often assigned at birth.
• Intersex Individuals:
o Born with physical traits that do not fit traditional male or
female definitions.
o In intersex individuals might have a combination of both
ovarian and testicular tissue (e.g ovotestes)
o Some intersex traits may only appear at puberty or later in
life.
o Prevalence: 1 in every 100 births involves intersex traits.
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8. The Complexity of Biological Sex:
• Example: Sam Killermann identifies his male traits (e.g., beard, testes)
and female traits (e.g., high-pitched voice, wide hips).
•When assigned sex and gender identity do not align, it can cause confusion
and discomfort.
•Transsexual Individuals:
o May undergo hormone therapy or surgery to align their physical
body with their gender identity.
o Example: Laverne Cox, the first openly transgender person nominated
for an Emmy Award, advocating for transgender rights and visibility
Ness Model in media.
o Jenna Takalova, transgender woman who successfully fought to
partcipate in the Miss Universe competition
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10. Attraction in the –Ness Model:
• Sexual and Romantic Attraction:
o Defined as subconscious interpretations of
hormonal influences and socialization.
o Attraction is distinct from gender identity or
biological sex.
o Example: Someone may experience romantic
attraction toward women and sexual attraction
toward men.
•Spectra of Attraction:
o Ranges from "nobody" to attraction toward
"women/femininity" and "men/masculinity."
o Example: An individual can experience attraction to both or
neither genders.
Key Takeaways:
•Biological sex and gender are more complex than binary
categories.
•Understanding and accepting diversity in sex, gender, and attraction
can promote inclusivity and challenge rigid societal norms.
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