Lecture 17

Advance Research Methods

Resource Person
Prof. Dr. Bushra Yasmeen
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

Six common Qualitative Research Designs are:

1. Phenomenological,
2. Ethnographic,
3. Grounded Theory,
4. Historical,
5. Case study, and
6. Action Research.
Phenomenological Studies

These studies examine human experiences through

the descriptions provided by the people involved.

These experiences are called lived experiences. The

goal of phenomenological studies is to describe the
meaning that experiences hold for each subject. This
type of research is used to study areas in which there
is little knowledge (Donalek, 2004).
In phenomenological research, respondents are asked
to describe their experiences as they perceive them.
They may write about their experiences, but
information is generally obtained through interviews.
To understand the lived experience from the vantage
point of the subject, the researcher must take into
account her/his own beliefs and feeling.

The researcher must first identify what the researcher

expects to discover and then deliberately put aside
these ideas; this process is called bracketing.

Only when the researcher puts aside her/his own

ideas about the phenomenon is it possible to see the
experience from the eyes of the person who has lived
the experience.
Phenomenological research would ask a question
such as:

“What is it like for a mother to live with a teenage

child who is dying of cancer?”

The researcher might perceive that the mother,

herself, would feel very hopeless and frightened.
These feelings would need to be identified and then
put aside to listen to what the mother is saying about
how she is living through this experience.
It is possible that this mother has discovered an
important reason for living, whereas previously she
had not felt needed anymore by her teenage child.
According to Parse, Coyne, and Smith (1985), the
analysis of data from these types of studies requires
that the researcher “dwell with the subjects’
descriptions in quiet contemplation” (p. 5).

The researcher then tries to uncover the meaning of

the lived experience for each subject.

Themes and patterns are sought in the data.

Data collection and data analysis occur

simultaneously.
Phenomenological research has sometimes been
viewed as so-called soft science.

Streubert and Carpenter (2002) contended that this

research method is rigorous, critical, and systematic.
They called for the beginning researcher to seek a
mentor who has experience in phenomenological
research.

Donalek (2004) wrote that conducting qualitative

research is “a challenging, exciting, and at times,
exhaustive process” (p. 517). However, she asserted
that the final research product might be very
satisfying for the researcher.
Daly (2005) studied the lived experiences of mothers
of suicidal adolescents. She contended that,
unfortunately, the mother’s experience is often the
hidden dimension in the family.
Unstructured interviews were conducted with 6
mothers living with suicidal adolescents.

Six themes were identified:

1. failure as a good mother,
2. the ultimate rejection,
3. feeling alone in the struggle,
4. helplessness and Powerlessness in the struggle,
5. cautious parenting, and
6. keeping an emotional distance.
Ethnographic Studies
These studies involve the collection and analysis of
data about cultural groups.

Agar (1986) described ethnography as “encountering

alien worlds and making sense of them” (p. 12).
He further stated that ethnographers try to show
how actions in one world make sense from the point
of view of another world.

Cameron (1990) wrote that ethnography means

“learning from people” (p. 5).
According to Leininger (1985), ethnography can be
defined as

“the systematic process of observing, detailing,

describing, documenting, and analyzing the lifeways
or particular patterns of a culture (or subculture) in
order to grasp the lifeways or patterns of the people
in their familiar environment” (p. 35).

In ethnographic research, the researcher frequently

lives with the people and becomes a part of their
culture. The researcher explores with the people their
rituals and customs. An entire cultural group may be
studied or a subgroup in the culture.
Ethnographers interview people who are most
knowledgeable about the culture. These people are
called key informants.

Data are generally collected through participant

observation and interviews.

As we discussed under phenomenological studies,

researchers bracket, or make explicit, their own
personal biases and beliefs, set them aside, and then
try to understand the daily lives of individuals as they
live them.
Data collection and analysis occur simultaneously. As
understanding of the data occurs, new questions
emerge.
The end purpose of ethnography is the development of
cultural theories.

The method has been used in anthropological research

for a long time.

Margaret Mead (1929) used it to study the Samoans.

Ethnography has been the principal method used by
anthropologists to study people all over the world.

Ethnographers study how people live and how they

communicate with each other.
Rather than using probability sampling procedures,
purposeful sampling is used. The researcher looks for
certain subjects who will be able to shed new light on
the phenomenon being studied. Diversity rather than
similarity is sought in the people that are sampled.

Data are gathered in naturalistic settings (field

settings).

Data collection primarily consists of participant

observation and interviews, and data are recorded
through handwritten notes and tape recordings.
Data collection and data analysis occur
simultaneously.
A process called constant comparison is used, in
which data are constantly compared to data that have
already been gathered.

Pertinent concepts are identified and assigned codes.

These codes are constantly reviewed as new
interpretations are made of the data.

The researcher keeps an open mind and uses an

intuitive process in interpreting data.

Once concepts have been identified and their

relationships specified, the researcher consults the
literature to determine if any similar associations
have already been uncovered.
Leininger (1985) asserted that a pre-study literature
search could lead to “premature closure.” This
means that the researcher would go into the
research setting expecting to find what is reported
in the literature. When an instance is found that is
similar to that reported in the literature, the
researcher would say, “Yes, that’s it!” and go home
and write the same thing.
Grounded Theory Studies

Grounded theory is a qualitative research approach

developed by two sociologists, Glaser and Strauss
(1967).
Grounded theory studies are studies in which data
are collected and analyzed and then a theory is
developed that is grounded in the data.

The grounded theory method uses both an

inductive and a deductive approach to theory
development.
According to Field and Morse (1985),

“constructs and concepts are grounded in the data

and hypotheses are tested as they arise from the
research” (p. 23).

According to Jacelon and O’Dell (2005), grounded

theory is an excellent method for understanding the
processes through which patients learn to manage
new or chronic health problems.

Each individual may manage the health problem in a

different way.
Grounded theory approach presumes it is possible to
discover fundamental patterns in all social life.
These patterns are called basic social processes.

Grounded theory is more concerned with the

generation rather than the testing of hypotheses.

The theory that is generated is self-correcting, which

means that as data are gathered, adjustments are
made to the theory to allow for the interpretation
of new data that are obtained.