Chemistry I (CHE 101) Module

By

D. D. Lakudzala

BEMT1, BFST1, BIEP1 & BILT1

 Chemistry
Study of materials (composition, structure and
properties) that make up the universe and the
changes these materials undergo, through:
• Synthesis – building up matter from small
units.
• Analysis – breaking down matter into small
units
 Matter
• Anything that has mass and occupies space. Things we
touch, smell, see as well as those we do not see.
Mass (quantity) versus weight (pull of gravity).
• Classification of matter :
Chemical - mixtures, compounds and elements.
Physical - solid, liquid and gaseous states.
• Made up of building blocks (atoms) - particulate theory of
matter.
• Law of conservation of matter. (matter can not be destroyed
or created but only change from one form to another)
 Physical States of Matter
• Solid state: Solids state is the state of matter which has
definite shape and volume.

• Liquid state: Liquids have a definite volume but they

take the shape of the container ( they do not have a
definite shape).

• Gaseous state: Gases have no definite shape and

volume. They take the shape of the container and occupy
the volume of the container.
phase change
 4 State of Matter: Plasma
th

• A plasma is a hot ionized gas consisting of

approximately equal numbers of positively charged
ions and negatively charged electrons.
• With characteristics significantly different from
those of ordinary neutral gases - are strongly
influenced by electric and magnetic fields while
neutral gases are not.
• Created by heating a gas or by subjecting gas to a
strong electromagnetic field
 4 State of Matter: Plasma
th

• Typically at low pressures(upper atmosphere,

fluorescent lamps, neon lights, electrical
sparks) or high temperature associated with
sun and stars –lightning, nuclear fusion
reactions
• Not well studied, but most abundant form of
ordinary matter in the universe.
• Partially ionised plasma – lightning storms.
Plasma
 Mixtures
• Consist of two or more different substances physically
intermingled.
• Composition is not constant (mixed in any proportion).
• Easy to separate physically
• Homogeneous mixture: same or uniform physical
appearance e.g. sugar in water solution
• Heterogeneous mixture: individual components in mixture
remain physically visible.
Heterogeneous mixtures include Colloids (smoke, clouds,
aerosols, emulsions) & composite materials (inorganic –
rock; organic – wood; biological - yeast)
 Substances
• Form of matter with definite (constant) composition and
distinct properties (physical or chemical)
Physical Property – properties which can be measured
without changing the composition or identity of the
substance, e. g. boiling point.
Chemical Property – involve change in composition, e.g.
digestive action.
• Identified by their unique properties such as smell, taste,
boiling point etc).
• Over five million substances known.
• Elements and compounds
 Elements
• Can not be broken down into simpler type of
matter by ordinary physical and chemical
means
• Consist of only one type of atom.
• Can exist as either atoms (e. g. argon) or
molecules (e. g. nitrogen).
• Metals, non-metals, metalloids & noble gases.
• Have symbols e. g. Ar or N (see Periodic Table)
 Compounds
• Consist of atoms two or more different
elements bound together in definite ratios.
• Have properties that are different from their
component elements. Can be broken down
into simpler type of matter (elements) by
chemical means (but not by physical means).
• Organic and inorganic
 Separation of mixtures
• Separations are physical processes
• Separations are done by exploiting differences
in physico-chemical characteristics of
components of the mixture.
• These are volatility, charge, solubility, size,
shape, colour, polarity, magnetism etc.
 Separation of mixtures
Solid/solid mixtures:
• beans/millet – hand picking/sieving/winowing
• beads/flour – sieving.
• iron/sand – magnetism (magnet attracts iron
but not sand).
• sand/salt – add water to dissolve salt, filter to
get sand then evaporate the salt solution to
remove water and remain with salt.
 Separation of Mixtures
Solid/liquid mixtures
Heterogeneous:
• Sand/water – filtration (using filter paper).
• Colloidal solution e.g clay/water-
centrifugation.
Homogeneous:
• Salt/water – evaporation (crystallization).
 Separation of mixtures
Liquid/liquid mixtures
Miscible:
• Water/ethanol – distillation or fractional
distillation.
• Water/ethanol/hexanol – fractional distillation
Immiscible :
• Water/paraffin – separating funnel
SOLVENT EXTRACTION?
 Separation of mixtures
Other separations
• Chromatography: ion exchange, size exclusion,
polarity/adsorption.
• Membrane filtration
• Reverse osmosis
 Exercise
• Draw a flow diagram for separating the
components of a mixture of iron pieces, sand,
table salt and paraffin.
 The Atom: Dalton’s atomic theory
• All matter is composed of tiny particles called atoms.
• Atoms can not be destroyed or divided or created. [Law of
conservation of mass – matter is not created or destroyed but
only change form]. This is used in balancing equations.
• Atoms of one element are identical in size, mass and other
physical and chemical properties and are different from the
atoms of all other all other elements
• Atoms of different elements combine chemically in simple
whole number ratios to form compounds. [Law of constant
composition].
• A chemical reaction is a rearrangement (combining, separating
or interchanging) of atoms.
 Cross-sectional view of an atom

• The atom contains a tiny

dense center called the
nucleus
Electrons
• the nucleus has essentially
the entire mass of the atom

• The nucleus is composed of

protons and neutrons

• The nucleus is positively

charged

• Electrons are dispersed

around the nucleus
 Sub-atomic particles
Particle Symbol Mass Relative Charge
(g) Mass Coulomb
Relative
Electron e- 9.11x10-28 1/1840 -1.6x10-19 -1

Proton p+ 1.67x10-24 1 +1.6x10-19 +1

Neutron n0 1.67x10-24 1 0 0
 Atomic Notation
• Each element has a characteristic number of
protons in the nucleus. This is the atomic
number, Z; the Identity of an element.
• The total number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom is the mass number, A.
• We use atomic notation to display the number of
protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom:
 Mass Relationship of Atoms
• Isotopes: atoms with same atomic number but
different mass numbers (different #s of n0).
• Atomic Mass: measured relative to carbon-12.

• Average atomic mass: summation of mass of

isotope x % abundance of the isotope.
 Average atomic mass for Nitrogen

• mass number exact weight % abundance

14 14.003074 99.63
15 15.000108 0.37
• Ave. atomic mass = (14.003074) (0.9963) +
(15.000108) (0.0037) = 14.007 amu
 Atomic structure
• John Dalton: proposed idea of solid indivisible particle
(Billiard model).
• J. J. Thomson: proposed electrical nature of atom, fuzzy
region with –ve and +ve charges embeded in it (plum
pudding model).
• Ernst Rutherford: solid, massive, +vely charged central
particle (nucleus) with –ve charges moving around it
(solar system model). Atomic size is 100,000 times size of
nucleus.
• Bohr: electrons have fixed energies hence occupy
definite regions; wave function
 Atomic structure: Electron Configuration
(EC)
Electrons move in specific regions (energy levels)
around the nucleus.
These energy levels have sublevels. Sublevels
have orbitals which are occupied by electrons.
Electron configuration is the distribution
of electrons of an atom among various atomic
orbitals and energy levels. For example, the
electron configuration of the neon atom is
1s2 2s2 2p6.
EC Spectroscopic Notation
 Principal quantum number (n)
• Shows main energy level.
• Shows period (row) in Periodic Table.
• Shows distance of electron from nucleus
(size of orbital).
• 1s o 2s 
• Takes positive whole numbers from 1
upwards (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7).
 Angular momentum (azimuthal) quantum
number (l): for sub-levels
• The number of sublevels that an energy level can
contain is equal to the principal quantum number. e. g.
second energy level (k) would have two sub-levels.
• Sublevel symbol value of l
First s l =0
Second p l =1
Third d l =2
Fourth f l =3
• Shows shape of orbital
• Takes values from 0 up to n-1
Shapes of Orbitals
 Angular momentum (azimuthal)
quantum number (l): for sub-levels,
0 for s, 1 for p, 2 for d and 3 for f;
takes on values from 0 up to n-1
Magnetic quantum number (ml): for number of
orbitals per sub-level
• Does not affect energy of electron but it
indicates 3-dimensional orientation of orbitals
• Tells # of degenerate orbitals per sublevel;
different values of ml for same n and l.
• ml takes on values from –l up to + l
each sublevel of QN l contains 2l + 1 orbitals.
e.g. if l = 1; values of ml will be -1, 0 and 1 i.e.
3 degenerate orbitals (i. e. 2x1 + 1 = 2 + 1 = 3).
 Orientation of p [l=1] orbitals
(p sub-level can take up to 6 electrons)
 Orientation of d [l=2] orbitals
(d sub-level takes up to 10 electrons)
 Orientations of f [l=3] orbitals
(f sub-level takes up to 14 electrons)
Orientation of s, p, d and f orbitals
 Sublevels and orbitals
• Orbital – space occupied by up to 2 e-s.
• Each type of sub-level holds a different # of orbitals
hence different #s of electrons
Sub-level # of degenerate orbitals max. # of e-s
s 1 2
p 3 6
d 5 10
f 7 14
 Spin quantum number, ms
• Relates to the electron’s spin; Spin up (+½) or spin
down (-½)
• An orbital can take up to 2 electrons only (Pauli
exclusion principle – No two electrons in an atom can
have the same four quantum #s)
• In one orbital two electrons will have paired spins
(spin up and spin down)
• For degenerate orbitals apply Hund’s rule – most
stable arrangement of electrons in a sublevel is the
one that has the greatest # of parallel spins)
 Total number of orbitals and electrons per
energy level
• Easy way for total # of orbitals is to use n2.
e.g. third energy level (n=3) has 3 sub-levels; s
with 1, p with 3 and d with 5 orbitals. Total is
1+3+5=9. Formula n2 = 32 = 9.
Easy way for total # of electrons is to use 2n2.
e.g. 3rd energy level with s, p and d sublevels can
take up to 2, 6 and 10 electrons. 2+6+10=18.
Formula 2n2 = 2x32 =18.
 Orbitals and e- capacity of the first four
energy levels
Level Sub- Orbitals per Orbitals per IDEAL max. # of e -s REAL
(n) level Sub-level per level per level (2n 2) # of e-s
1 s 1 1 2 2

2 s 1
p 3 4 8 8

3 s 1
p 3
d 5 9 18 8
4 s 1
p 3
d 5
f 7 16 32 18
Order of Orbitals in terms of energy
Three basic principles for filling electrons in
orbitals
Electrons fill orbitals on an atom one at a time. As they add they go
into the lowest energy orbital that is available to them.
• #1 -Aufbau Principle: start at the lowest possible energy level
which is the 1s and "build up"
• #2 - Pauli Exclusion Principle: two electrons that are in the same
orbital must have opposite spins. (No two electrons in an atom
can have the same set of 4 quantum numbers)
• #3 - Hund's Rule: fill degenerate orbitals with one electron each
before you begin to pair. (Most stable EC is one with the most
parallel spins).
Please note that Pauli and Hund were scientists, Aufbau was not.
Aufbau is German for "to build up.“
 Types of electron configurations
• Spectroscopic, shorthand and orbital diagram
notations
• Spectroscopic notation: e.g N (7e-s) - Is22s22p3.
• Shorthand notation: EC written in terms of
noble gas that is closest to it, with a fewer # of
e-s e.g. N – [He]2s22p3.
• For atom in period n, take noble gas from
preceding period (n-1) [ or with fewer
electrons] then add ns and other orbitals
following energy order
 Types of electron configurations
• Orbital diagram: an orbital with is represented
by a box. Boxes for degenerate orbitals are
joined. Hund’s rule is used in assigning e-s to
the boxes.
e.g. N: 1s2 2s2 2p3
 Exceptional electronic configurations
• Elements with stable d5 and d10 configurations
e.g. Cr (24 e-s ) and Cu (29 e-s) groups
Instead of [Ar]4s23d4 or [Ar]4s23d9 in reality we
have [Ar] 4s13d5 or [Ar]4s13d10.
• Others with 5s and 4d energy levels very close
Nb: [Kr]5s14d4
Ru: [Kr]5s14d7
Rh: [Kr]5s14d8
Pd: [Kr]5s04d10
4 Quantum numbers: n, l, ml. & ms
• Principal quantum number (n) – main energy level
• Angular momentum (Azimuthal) quantum number
(l): tells sublevel and shape of orbitals. Takes on
values from 0 up to n-1.
• Magnetic quantum number (ml): tells orientation
of orbitals. Takes on values form –l up to + l.
• Spin quantum number (ms): tells electron spin;
spin up or spin down; plus or minus half.
 Terms and Concepts pertaining to
Schroedinger’s Wave Equation
• Electrons treated as both waves and particles.
• Effective nuclear charge (Zeff): amount of nuclear charge
that an electron will experience after taking into
consideration all of the screening options contributed by
the other electrons in the system. Zeff = Z-α, where α
shielding constant and Z is actual nuclear charge.
0< α<Z
shielding effect – an outer electron is partly shielded
from the attractive force of the nucleus by the inner
electrons
Relates to valence electrons. Zeff for group 1 atoms is 1
 Effective Nuclear Charge

• What keeps electrons from simply flying off

into space?
• Effective nuclear charge is the pull that an
electron “feels” from the nucleus.
• The closer an electron is to the nucleus, the
more pull it feels.
• As effective nuclear charge increases, the
electron cloud is pulled in tighter.
 Shielding
• As more PELs are added to atoms, the inner
layers of electrons shield the outer electrons
from the nucleus.
• The effective nuclear charge (enc) on those
outer electrons is less, and so the outer
electrons are less tightly held.
 Terms and Concepts pertaining to
Schroedinger’s Wave Equation
• Isoelectronic: having identical electronic configurations
e.g. F-1 and Ne both have 10 electrons; 1s22s22p6
• Ground state: lowest electronic energy (EC based on
aufbau principle). e.g. 1s22s22p1
• Excited state: electron jumps from one sublevel to a
higher sublevel. e.g. 1s22s12p2
• Ion: electron goes out of an atom for positively charged
species (cations) e.g. 1s2 for Li+ OR electrons enter an
atom for negatively charged species (anions) e.g.
1s22s22p6 for F-1.
 Terms and Concepts pertaining to
Schroedinger’s Wave Equation
Paramagnetic: net magnetic fields reinforce one
another; have at least one unpaired spin.
• Substances are attracted by a magnet.
• All atoms with odd # of electrons are paramagnetic.
• Some atoms with even # of electrons are paramagnetic –
draw orbital diagram EC to know.
Diamagnetic: magnetic fields are anti-parallel to each
other (all electron spins are paired).
• Substances are repelled by a magnet
• For some atoms with even # of electrons .