Rabbit

Dissection
Dr. Nemia T. Alimbuyugin
Professor- Comparative Anatomy
Study of the structure of the bodies
of animals is commonly divided into
microscopic anatomy and gross
anatomy. This classification,
however, is based merely upon the
sizes of the parts to be examined &
the consequent need of somewhat
different technical methods of study.
The 2 are essentially one in outlook
and they are equally essential for an
understanding of the structure, a
knowledge of which is a prerequisite
for any intelligent study of functions,
of behaviour, of development, and
diseases,
•The rabbit is a member of the great
class of air-breathing, warm-blooded
animals known as Mammalia, which
class is of special interest to man since
he himself belongs to it. Perhaps the
most obvious and distinctive of the
characteristics of this class are the
possession of mammary glands and
the possession of true hair.

•Among the many orders composing

the Mammalia, two of the more lowly
are distinguished by various features
related to gnawing habits, particularly
modifications of the teeth for this
purpose.
 Until the early 20th century, rabbits were classified as
rodents; however, they differ from rodents in several
ways and are now classed in the order Lagomorpha,
with hares and pikas. The majority of domestic rabbits,
including your dissection specimen, are derived from
the European rabbit. In the wild, this species lives in
groups that form elaborate systems of burrows referred
to as warrens. Domestic rabbits have been either
accidentally or purposely introduced to many habitats
in which they then over-proliferated, disrupting the
native ecosystem.

As you progress through this investigation of rabbit

anatomy, consider how the form of each particular
structure is appropriate for its function. For example, the
rabbit’s sharp incisors enable it to cut the herbaceous
plants that it eats and to gnaw through roots when
burrowing. Correlating form with function is a part of
any in-depth anatomical study. Before you begin the
dissection, read the entire procedure carefully and
familiarize yourself with the following list of commonly
used terms.
 Midsagittal plane
Anterior Posterior

Dorsal

Frontal
plane
Ventral

Proximal
Distal
Lateral

Medial
Transverse
plane

Body planes and directions.

Wear safety
glasses or
goggles, gloves,
and a lab apron
when dissecting
the specimen.
Perform the
dissection only on
the dissection
tray. Follow proper
hygiene practices
Direction or Plane Definition
Lateral Toward the right or left side
Medial Toward the midline
Proximal Near or toward the point of reference
Distal Away from the point of reference
Dorsal Toward the back
Ventral Toward the belly
Anterior (cranial) Toward the head
Posterior (caudal) Toward the tail
Superficial Toward or along the surface
Deep A significant distance below the surface
EXTERNAL FEATURES
The outer surface of the body of a
mammal has a characteristic covering
of hairs, which are secondary
outgrowths of the epidermis, the outer
layer of the skin. This coat of hair is
very complete in the rabbit, being
absent only over the eyes and in a pair
of depressions beside the external
genital organs, the inguinal spaces.
External Anatomy
The rabbit can be divided
into three sections, the head,
trunk (limbs ), and tail.

Hair serves a vital role in

thermoregulation in most
Tail

species of mammals and also Trunk

protects the skin. Specialized

hairs, vibrissae, or whiskers,
are typically found on the Head

face. They are used as part of

the rabbit’s sensory system
and help the animal gather
information about its
surroundings.
 External Anatomy
The rabbit’s eyes are large and set
laterally on the head. Lateral
positioning increases field of vision but
reduces depth perception. Also due to
the placement of the eyes, a rabbit has
a small blind spot directly in front of its
face. This eye positioning is common in
animals that have many predators.
 Compared with humans, rabbits
tend to be farsighted—their focus
is worse on things that are nearby
but better on things at a distance
(such as approaching predators).
Rabbits tend to be crepuscular
(most active near twilight and
dawn) and have good vision in low
light conditions. Protecting the
eyes are upper and lower lids and
a partial nictitating membrane
located in the medial corner of the
eye. Because it is transparent, the
nictitating membrane allows for
some protection and moistening
without as great of a loss of vision
as blinking of the eyelids.
The nares, or nostrils, are not only the openings to the
respiratory system but are also crucial to the sensory
system, allowing rabbits to gather olfactory information
from their environment. The nares are enclosed by
lateral folds which radiate from the median cleft.

The external part of the ear, the pinna (pl.,

pinnae), directs sound waves into the auditory
meatus, or ear canal. A rabbit can hear a greater
range of frequencies than a human. The pinnae
function also in thermoregulation; in fact, the
surface area of the ears may occupy as much as
10 percent of the overall surface area of a rabbit.
 Like a rodent, a rabbit has incisors
that are open-rooted and grow
continuously throughout the animal’s Note the paired feet &
life. Unlike a rodent, a rabbit has 4 legs of the rabbit. The
incisors in its upper jaw. The smaller feet & legs of the
pair behind the front incisors are rabbit are modified for
referred to as peg teeth. hopping, also known
as saltatorial
Observe the sensory organs located in the locomotion. Mammals
mouth, the taste buds. Rabbits have a good with saltatorial
sense of taste. Like humans, rabbits can locomotion tend to
taste the four basic categories of flavors:
sweet, sour, bitter, & salt. The sense of have enlarged
taste helps a rabbit determine potential muscular hind limbs
toxicity and nutritional value of the plants and reduced forelimbs
that it nibbles.by the teeth, while salivary & to live in open
enzymes begin the food’s chemical spaces.
breakdown.
Vibrissae

Eye Pinna

Nictitating
membrane

Nares

Mouth

Incisors

The external anatomy of the rabbit’s head

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
The skeleton constitutes the supporting system of the body,
the rigid framework about which the soft parts are disposed
and by which in some cases they are given mechanical
protection. It also serves for the attachment of muscles
which move the parts of the body. Obviously, since the
component materials of the skeleton are relatively rigid,
they must be formed into separate pieces some, at least, of
which are movably connected, otherwise any movement of
the animal would be impossible. The separate pieces are
usually designated, according to the material composing
them, as either bones or cartilages.
 the axial
The skeletal skeleton is the the appendicular skeleton
system consists skull, vertebral includes the pectoral and
of 2 main column, ribs, pelvic girdles and their
parts, and sternum appendages.
and

The pectoral appendages are the forelimbs, and the pelvic

appendages are the hind limbs. During your dissection of
the rabbit, refer to the skeleton diagram to identify the
bones that you encounter. Observe the structure and
arrangement of the bones as you consider their specific
functions
 SKELETON–AXIAL SUBDIVISION

The vertebral column forms the axial support of the neck, trunk, and tail regions, occupying
a median position held in the embryo by a long, flexible rod, the notochord. The
replacement of this flexible rod by the stronger tissue, cartilage, and later by still harder
bone, necessitated the moulding of these materials into separate, articulated masses so that
the body should not become disadvantageously rigid. Hence the vertebral column consists
of a row of separate units, vertebrae.

In the most primitive condition, the vertebrae were all alike.

The support of the body by the limbs in a relatively non-
buoyant medium.
SKELETON–APPENDICULAR SUBDIVISION
•The pectoral girdle, that portion of the
skeleton of the anterior limb which is
imbedded in the trunk of the animal,
comprises two pairs of bones, the clavicles, or
collar bones, and the scapulae, or shoulder
blades. It is attached to the axial skeleton only
by ligaments and muscles, without direct
articulation, so that the shock when the
animal lands suddenly on its fore feet is taken
up by these elastic structures.

•The clavicle is particularly small and slender

in the rabbit, about the size of a common pin,
and is suspended by ligaments between the
shoulder and the cephalic..
The muscular system consists of skeletal muscle, which contracts to
move bones. A typical skeletal muscle is attached to two bones by
tendons. The attachment point to the bone that is moved during
contraction is called the muscle’s insertion. The muscle’s origin is the
stationary point of attachment. To observe the musculature, you must
first skin the rabbit . After removing the skin, refer to the muscle
diagrams to identify the superficial muscles of the rabbit. Consider the
function of each muscle as you examine it. Try to find the origin and
insertion of some of the muscles that you examine.
 10
9
8 11

6
17
15 16
5
12

14

4 3 2 1

20
21 .

22 Axis
.Clavicle 31
23

37 18

36

26 24 35
19
25
27 34

33

28

30 39 38
29 32
30
 The skeletal structure of the rabbit

1. Mandible 14. Cervical vertebra (7) 27. Ulna

2. Molar 15. Thoracic vertebra (12) 28. Carpals
3. Premolar 16. Ribs (12) 29. Metacarpals
4. Incisor 17. Lumbar vertebra (7) 30. Phalanges
5. Nasal 18. Sacral vertebra (4) 31. Ilium
6. Premaxilla 19. Caudal vertebra (16) 32. Ischium
7. Maxilla 20. Scapula 33. Pubis
8. Frontal 21. Clavicle 34. Femur
9. Optic foramen 22. Humerus 35. Fibula
10. Squamosal 23. Sternum 36. Tibia
11. Parietal 24. Xiphoid process 37. Patella
12. Atlas 25. Olecranon process 38. Tarsals
13. Axis 26. Radius 39. Metatarsals
Skinning the rabbit
Massage the skin in the dorsal neck area to loosen a
portion of the skin from the underlying muscle. With a
scalpel, make a small incision in the center of the area of
loosened skin. Using blunt-tipped scissors, cut a shallow
incision down the dorsal midline toward the tail. As you
cut, pull the skin away from the underlying muscles. From
this cut, make additional cuts down the lateral surface of
each leg and around the wrists and ankles. Additionally
cut around the neck, tail, anus, and external genitalia.
Ensure that you do not damage the genitalia while making
the cuts. After all cuts are made, separate the skin from the
underlying muscles by using a blunt probe to tear through
the superficial fascia while pulling the skin away from the
body. As you separate the skin near the neck you will see
the platysma, fine parallel muscle fibers that are attached
 Skinning the Rabbit

As you separate the skin from the muscles on the rabbit’s ventral
surface, you will see that the skin is attached to a thin sheet of
muscle, the cutaneous maximus, which originates at the linea alba
(midline). To remove the skin, pull the skin away from the body and
then cut through this muscle’s attachment points to the trunk along
the midline and in the axillary (armpit) region of the rabbit. Be
careful not to damage any of the other muscles. Finally, remove the
skin by pulling it down from the ventral cranial region toward the
caudal region. Skin should remain only on the feet, head, tail, and
genitalia of the rabbit.
MUSCLES OF MASTICATION
If the head is to be dissected, it is necessary to
examine some of its more superficial structures
first. The median ventral incision of the skin should
be continued forward to the lower lip and the skin
should be stripped away from the head and the
neck on one side right round to the mid-dorsal
line. The external ear may be severed at its base
and the lining of the eyelids cut.
 MUSCLES OF THE LIMBS
Within the body the soft parts are to
various degrees supported and protected
by the skeleton, which has already been
described. This framework of rigid parts has
to be moved by muscles in order that
locomotion and other activities of the
animal may take place. Hence an
examination of internal parts may
reasonably begin with representatives of
the muscular system. Further, the slener
limbs are subject to desiccation if the
dissection is extended over a prolonged
period so that there is some advantage in
completing their study before the trunk is
opened.
 Dorsal Superficial Pelvic Muscles Ventral Superficial Pelvic Muscles
1. Basioclavicularis 2
1 2
2. Levator scapulae ventralis 9
2 2

3. Cleidomastoid
3
4
2
2
21. Sternohyoid
1 8 2
5
4. Cleidohumeralis 0 1
2
6 2 22. Sternomastoid
7 7 2
23. Jugular vein
3
5. Acromiodeltoid 1
6
5
4 8
1
6. Extensor carpi radialis longus 1
2 1 24. Basioclavicularis
3 1
7. Extensor brevis pollicis 4 25. Cleidomastoid
8. Radius 1 26. Pectoralis tenuis
5
9. Transverse ligament 1
6
2
27. Cleidohumeralis
10. Ulna 9
1 28. Pectoralis major
11. Extensor carpi ulnaris 7
3
0 29. Cutaneous maximus
12. Extensor communis digitorium 1

13. Extensor digiti proprius

8
1 30. Latissimus dorsi
9

14. Flexor carpi ulnaris 31. External obliqu

15. Olecranon process 1
3
2
16. Triceps brachii, lateral head 0

17. Acromiotrapezius
18. Latissimus dorsi
19. Spinotrapezius
20. External oblique Superficial pectoral muscles
 1. Dorsal 3. Gluteus 5. Tensor fascia
2. Gluteus medius 4. Rectus femoris
aponeurosis maximus lata

6. Biceps femoris 7. Vastus 9. Biceps femoris 10. Extensor

8. Vastus lateralis
anterior intermedius posterior digitorum longus

11. Gastrocnemius 12. 13. Adductor 15. External

14. Gracilis
medialis Semimembranosis magnus oblique

19. Abductor 20.

16. Rectus femoris 17. Vastus medialis 18. Sartorius
caudae Semimembranosis

22. Adductor
21. Gracilis
magnus
 THE JOINTS OF THE HIP AND THE KNEE

Examples of the structure of joints may be examined most satisfactorily

in the posterior limb, where these are relatively strongly developed.

Each articulation is enclosed in a capsule formed by a sheet of

strong connective tissue extending from one bone to the other and
completely enclosing a cavity containing the articular surfaces.
Each of these surfaces is covered by a very thin layer of cartilage
and the cavity contains a small amount of lubricating liquid, the
synovia, secreted by the lining of the capsule, the synovial
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM (ABDOMINAL PORTIONS)

The incisions through the abdominal wall should now be completed, the viscera, or
organs in the abdominal cavity, being thereby exposed.

The abdominal cavity is the largest of four portions into which the primary body cavity,
the coelom, has become divided, the others being the pericardial cavity, which
surrounds the heart, and the two pleural cavities, which contain the lungs.

The inner surface of the wall of the abdominal cavity is lined by the parietal peritoneum,
If this thin, smooth, moist layer is traced from either side to the dorsal median line,.
•Secure the skinned rabbit on its dorsal side in the dissection
tray. Following the incision lines depicted in the diagram, cut
through the muscular wall of the abdomen from the pubic
arch to the most posterior rib. Cut two additional incisions
from the linea alba to the dorsal side of the rabbit, almost to
the vertebral column. Carefully fold the flaps of skin and
muscle laterally. Do not disturb the underlying organs. Pin the
flaps to the tray to expose the abdominal cavity. There are two
body cavities separated by a thin sheet of muscle called the
diaphragm. The exposed cavity is the abdominal cavity.
Anterior to that cavity and separated by the diaphragm is the
thoracic cavity. A prominent organ in the anterior of the
abdominal cavity is the liver.
This reddish brown organ is divided into right
& left lobes by the falciform ligament. Each
of these lobes is further divided into median
and lateral lobes, for a total of four lobes of
the liver. The liver produces some amino
acids, filters the blood, converts harmful
substances into harmless ones, and helps to
regulate blood sugar. Additionally, in the
digestive system, the liver produces bile,
which emulsifies fat during digestion. The
bile produced by the liver is stored in the
gallbladder. Raise the right lobe of the liver
and observe the gallbladder, a dark,
greenish-yellow sac.
 Liver

Large intestine

Diaphragm

Small intestine

Abdominal cavity
 For dissection of the
abdominal wall the
specimen should be The skin can now be
laid upon its back and a lifted on one side and
median incision pulled away from the
through the skin only underlying muscles,
should be made from to which it is attached
ABDOMINAL the sternum back to by loose
WALL the pelvic symphysis. subcutaneous
Transverse incisions connective tissue, the
should then be made point of a finger or
from the ends of the the blunt handle of a
longitudinal one, scalpel being used to
passing just behind the help...
shoulder and just in
front of the hip.
 Liver

Gallbladder

Liver

Abdominal cavity showing the gallbladder

As you continue to examine the Esophagus

abdominal cavity, trace the path of Cardiac region

food through the digestive system.

Cardiac
sphincter Fundus

Each swallow of food forms a bolus,

which travels from the mouth down
the esophagus. The majority of the
esophagus, located in the thoracic
cavity, is best examined during

ure
vat
cur
observation of the circulatory system.

s er
Le s

ure
Some small portion may be visible at

rvat
r cu
the most anterior portion of the

ate
Gre
stomach. After leaving the esophagus,
the food reaches the stomach, located Pylo
ric re

on the left side of the rabbit, beneath

gion

the diaphragm.
Lift the liver to view the entire stomach. The stomach consists
of four portions: the cardia, the fundus, the body, and the
pylorus. The cardiac portion is the area where the stomach
joins the esophagus. In this section, the cardiac sphincter
separates the esophagus from the stomach. (Malfunction of this
sphincter is a cause of acid reflux in humans.) The fundus is the
upper curve of the stomach that lies to the left side of the
esophagus. The body is the main portion of the stomach. The
pyloric section lies to the right of the esophagus and terminates
in the pyloric sphincter, which separates the stomach from the
duodenum, the first portion of the small intestine.
Liver Stomach

.
Abdominal cavity showing the stomach
Stomach

Spleen

Abdominal cavity showing the spleen

 Stomach

Pancreas

Duodenum

Abdominal cavity showing the pancreas

 Distal colon

Haustra

Taenia
Colon

Proximal colon

Cecum Appendix

Sacculus rotundus

Small intestine

Abdominal cavity showing intestinal tract

In the stomach, chemical and mechanical digestion continue as
muscular contractions mix the bolus with digestive secretions, forming
a mixture called chyme. Open the stomach and remove any food from
the inner surface. Examine the internal surface of the stomach. Note
the deep folds, or rugae, that allow the stomach to expand without
pressure. (A hands lens may help you see greater detail.) Though not
part of the digestive system, the spleen is best viewed at this point.
The spleen is located on the greater curvature of the stomach, the
larger convex curve. It is a small, dark, reddish-brown organ. The
spleen is part of the lymphatic system and is designed to filter blood.
From the stomach, the chyme travels through the pyloric sphincter
into the duodenum, the first section of the small intestine. It is here
that the common bile duct from the liver and gallbladder and the
pancreatic duct from the pancreas meet the small intestine to release
additional enzymes to continue the process of digestion.
From the duodenum, the mixture travels to the jejunum and
ileum, the other sections of the small intestine, which are
difficult to distinguish. The caudal end of the ileum is modified
into a round muscular enlargement called the sacculus rotundus.
The sacculus rotundus is a structure found only in rabbits. It has
a large amount of lymphoid tissue and is involved in the immune
system. Carefully cut longitudinally along a portion of the small
intestine and examine the lining with a hand lens. The small
intestine is lined with thousands of circular folds, the plicae
circulares. There are also small projections called villi. Each villus
has its own projections, the microscopic, hair-like microvilli. The
folds and projections increase the surface area of the small
intestine and maximize the absorption of nutrients. The small
intestine ends at the ileocecal valve. Within the mesentery of
the small intestine is the pancreas, a pinkish-brown, somewhat
granular mass. The pancreas opens to the small intestine
through the pancreatic duct at the caudal end of the duodenum.
It is part of both the digestive and endocrine systems and
secretes both enzymes and hormones.
Materials exit the small intestine through the sacculus
rotundus to the large intestine—first to a short
compartment called the ampulla cecalis coli (a
connection between the cecum and the colon) and then
to the colon. In the first section of the colon, the proximal
colon, special contractions separate the more-digestible
from the less-digestible materials and force the nutritious
components backward into the cecum. The rougher
materials continue along the distal colon. The cecum is a
large, coiled blind sac that extends from the sacculus
rotundus. The cecum makes up a larger proportion of the
digestive tract in rabbits than in any other group of
animals, and it is critical to the digestion of their food.
Within the cecum, bacteria break down the material
through fermentation. At certain times, material from the
cecum is released to the colon where it is coated in
mucus and excreted through the anus in the form of soft
balls called cecotropes, also known as night feces or soft
feces. Rabbits immediately eat their cecotropes, and the
materials pass again through the digestive system.
The rabbit extracts additional nutrients from the food
this time, due to the fermentative changes that
occurred in the cecum. Rabbits’ digestion exemplifies
one type of hindgut fermentation. Cattle and other
ruminants are called “foregut fermenters” because
microbial fermentation of their food occurs before the
food reaches the intestine. Although the rabbit colon
can be divided into the ascending, transverse, and
descending colon, it is usually discussed in terms of the
proximal and distal colon. A short, muscular portion
called the fusus coli marks the division between the
two. This section helps regulate the complex events that
move materials either forward or backward and that
determine whether cecotropes or dry feces are being
produced. The beginning section of the proximal colon
has a lumpy appearance because it includes many
pouches called haustra between longitudinal bands
called taenia. The distal colon is a long, twisted tube
that terminates with the rectum. Both dry feces and
cecotropes exit the anus
 1 9
4
3
1
1 0
5
1
6
1
7
1 2
1 1
2 1
4
8 2
2
9 1
9
3 2
1 3
0 2
2
4 1 0
4
1
1
1 4
3
2
5
5

1
2 3
1 6
6 2
3
6
7
2
7
1
3
8

8
1. Diaphragm 2. Falciform ligament 3.
Liver, right central lobe 4. Omentum 5.
Taenia 6. Colon 7. Cecum 8. Rectum 9.
Liver, left central lobe 10. Liver, left
lateral lobe 11. Stomach 12. Small
intestine 13. Appendix 14. Esophagus
15. Cystic duct 16. Gallbladder 17. Bile
duct 18. Liver, caudate lobe 19. Kidney
20. Duodenum 21. Pyloric stomach 22.
Cardiac stomach 23. Spleen 24.
Pancreas 25. Ileum 26. Sacculus
rotundus 27.
 URINOGENITAL SYSTEM
As a result of their manner of development,
which involves the utilization by the genital
system of ducts belonging to or derived from
the urinary system, these systems have to be
considered together. In the adult mammal,
however, only the terminal portions remain
common, so that it is convenient to consider
first the parts which are concerned only with
the removal of liquid, mainly nitrogenous
wastes.
 Also notice the adrenal glands, part of the
endocrine system, one of which is medial to
each kidney. The kidneys filter waste from
The urogenital system consists of the the bloodstream and produce urine. The
urinary and the reproductive systems, which kidneys are the essential excretory organs of
share some components. The urinary this system, the organs which actually
system removes nitrogenous wastes from extract the waste substances in solution
the body as urine, and it also regulates from the blood. Each is a smooth, bean-
osmotic pressure. The reproductive system shaped organ closely pressed against the
produces the gametes (the male’s sperm dorsal.The urine moves from the kidneys
and female’s ova) necessary for the through the ureter to the urinary bladder,
formation of offspring. It also includes the where it accumulates. As the bladder fills, it
structures involved in the sexual transfer of is stimulated to contract, expelling the urine
sperm to ova and in the protection, out through the urethra. In the female
development, and birth of young. rabbit, the urethra empties into the
urogenital sinus, whereas in the male it
continues to the penis, joining the
reproductive system.
 To view the urinary system, remove the rabbit’s liver and
push the visceral organs to the right side of the specimen.
Partially embedded on the dorsal surface of the abdominal
cavity are two bean-shaped organs, the kidneys. The kidneys
filter waste from the bloodstream, regulate the amount of
water in the rabbit, and maintain appropriate concentrations
of certain ions. Using a sharp scalpel, cut one of the kidneys
in half longitudinally, along its flattened plane. As you
examine the interior of the kidney, note the outer portion,
the renal cortex, and the inner portion, the renal medulla.
As you examine the kidneys, notice the and renal vein,
which carry blood
Kidneys and associated structures
.

Uninary bladder

Kidney

Ureter

Upper portion of urinary system

.
Kidneys and
1
associated 0
1
9
structures
1
1

2 8
•1.Kidney
•2. Hilus 7
•3.Abdominal aorta
•4. Inferior vena cava 6
• 5. Ureter
3
• 6. Renal pelvis
•7. Renal medulla 4
•8. Renel cortex
•9. Renal a. and v. 5
10. Dorsolumbar a. and v.
•11. Adrenal gland
Male urogenital
system
•1.Urinary bladder
•2. Seminal vesicle
•3. Scrotal sac
• 4. Urethra
•5. Crus 6. Penis
•7. Anus
•8. Gubernaculum
•9. Testis
•10. Tunica vaginalis
•11. Epididymus
•12. Mesorchium
•13. Vas deferens
•14. Spermatic a. and v1
In males the hormone testosterone and the sperm (the male gametes), are
produced in the testes, two organs situated in the scrotum. To view the testes,
cut open the scrotum, located caudal to the penis. The testes are white,
marbled, ovoid structures. With a sharp scalpel, cut one of them in half. Examine
the interior of the testis, noting the coiled tubules, seminiferous tubules, where
sperm are produced. Examine the anterior portion of the uncut testis and locate
the epididymis, a tightly coiled tube that collects and stores sperm cells. During
ejaculation, the sperm are released from the epididymis to the ductus deferens,
which transfers sperm from a testis to the urethra. At the base of the bladder lies
the seminal vesicle, which secretes a fluid into the ductus deferens. This fluid
combines with the sperm and with fluid from the prostate to produce semen.
The prostate is seen as a thickening of the dorsal wall of the seminal vesicle. The
semen passes through the urethra and out through the tip of the penis. The free
end of the penis, the glans penis, typically lies within a pouch of skin called the
prepuce. Inside the glans penis is a small bone called the baculum, which
stabilizes the penis during copulation.
Trace the path of the gametes produced by the female rabbit. In
female specimens, the ova, female gametes, are produced by the
ovaries. The ovaries can be found in the dorsal wall of the abdomen
caudal to the kidneys. If the ovaries in your specimen are obscured by
a layer of fat, carefully remove it in order to view them. Once the ova
mature, they are released from the ovaries into the fallopian tubes.
Unlike humans, rabbits release multiple eggs at one time. Fertilization
of these eggs typically produces a litter of 4 to 12 kits. The fallopian
tubes transport the eggs from the ovaries to the uteri. Rabbits have
paired uteri, a distinct left uterus and right uterus, each with a
muscular wall that distinguishes them from the fallopian tubes. Each
uterus enters the anterior of the vagina though a separate cervix
terminating at the external uterine aperture. The vagina and the
urethra (from the urinary system), converge at the vestibule, or
urogenital sinus, which opens to the exterior at the vestibular
 1

16

•1.Ovarian a. and v.
•2. Ovary
15
2

•3. Fallopian tube 3

14

•4. Ovarian ligament

4

•5. Urinary bladder

5

•6. Uterus
•7. External uterine aperture 6
13

•8. Vestibule
•9. Vestibular opening
•10. Anus
•11. Vagina
•12. Urethra 7

•13. Mesometrium 12

•14. Mesosalpinx
•15. Funnel
11

•16. Mesovarium

10
 RESPIRATORY ORGANS
THE LUNGS ARE THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS OF EXTERNAL RESPIRATION, THAT IS THE PLACE WHERE
OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE ARE EXCHANGED BETWEEN THE AIR AND THE BLOOD, OR TO BE
MORE PRECISE, THE ALVEOLI, MICROSCOPIC SACS WITHIN THE LUNGS, ARE THE SITE OF THIS
PROCESS.

EACH LUNG IS ENCLOSED IN A PLEURAL SAC COMPARABLE WITH THE PERICARDIAL AND
PERITONEAL SACS, THE TWO PLEURAL SACS BEING SEPARATED BY A MEDIAN PARTITION WHICH
CONTAINS THE ESOPHAGUS DORSALLY AND INTO THE CRANIOVENTRAL PART OF WHICH THE
PERICARDIUM IS, AS IT WERE, WEDGED. THE LINING OF EACH SAC IS THE PLEURA. A ROUGHLY
TRANSVERSE FOLD.
WALLS OF THE THORAX AND MECHANISM OF BREATHING

The abdominal cavity is separated from the thoracic cavity in front of it by a transverse
muscular partition, the diaphragm, which is one of the distinctive features of mammals. The
partition has a markedly curved form so that in a quadrupedal mammal it is like a bowl set on
edge, with its concavity facing backward and accommodating the smooth, rounded, anterior
surface of the liver and its convexity bulging into the cavity of the thorax.

Structurally the diaphragm consists of a broad ring of radially-arranged muscle surrounding a

central tendinous area. The muscle has origin on the internal surface
To view the respiratory system, open the thoracic cavity. Cut
along the midline, from the diaphragm to the base of the
neck. As you make your incisions, you will be cutting
through some musculature as well as the ribs. Fold back the
musculature and ribs on both sides to expose the cavity. Pin
the musculature down to expose the thoracic cavity.

You have already examined the nares, the external portion of

the rabbit’s nose. Rabbits are obligate nasal breathers; a rabbit
cannot breathe through its mouth due to the position of the
glottis and epiglottis. These structures serve as the opening of
the respiratory system from the pharynx, the area just
posterior to the mouth and common to both the respiratory
and digestive systems.

As you examine the features of the respiratory system, follow

the path of an inhaled breath. From the nares, air travels to the
pharynx, past the glottis and epiglottis, to the larynx, and then
the trachea. To view the larynx and trachea, extend the midline
incision toward the chin, making a shallow cut to avoid
damaging the underlying structures. Then, using a blunt
instrument, tease away any surrounding tissue.
The larynx, a cartilaginous structure, protects the entrance to the trachea
and is important in vocalization. Posterior to the larynx is the trachea.
The trachea is a long tube ringed with bands of cartilage that provide
support and prevent collapse. The trachea continues posteriorly until it
divides into left and right bronchi dorsal to the heart. These bronchi lead
to the left and right lungs. In the lungs, the bronchi branch further into
smaller bronchioles, which terminate in vestibules containing alveoli,
where most gas exchange occurs. The lungs of the rabbit are divided into
three portions: the anterior, middle, and posterior lobes. Due to the
position of the heart on the left side of the cavity, the left anterior lobe is
much smaller than its counterpart on the right.
 Esophagus

Trachea
Lungs

Heart enclosed in
the pericardium

Lun
gs

Aortic arch

Thoracic cavity, with the heart

Trachea

Lungs

Bronchus

Lun
gs

Thoracic cavity, without the heart

HEART AND PRINCIPAL BLOOD-VESSELS

In the anteroventral part of the thorax appears an irregularly triangular

brownish mass of fatty consistency, the thymus gland. This is an endocrine
gland which is important during growth and development, though its
precise functions are still obscure.

It is gradually reduced about the time of maturity but usually retains

considerable size in the rabbit The thymus should be carefully
removed without injury to underlying structures.

The heart may be seen partly dorsal and caudal to the thymus.
surrounded by a loose, membranous sac. The cavity of the sac, the
pericardial cavity, is one of four derived from.
•There are two circulatory
pathways:
•pulmonary and systemic.
•pulmonary circulation,
deoxygenated blood is pumped
from the right side of the heart
to the lungs, and oxygenated
blood flows back to the left side
of the heart.
• systemic circulation,
this oxygenated blood is
pumped from the left side of the
heart throughout the body, and
deoxygenated blood travels back
to the right side of the heart.
To fully view the heart, carefully remove the thymus gland,
a component of the endocrine system. The heart is
covered by a membrane called the pericardium, or
pericardial sac. Carefully lift it away from the heart and
make an incision in it. In a living rabbit, the pericardial sac
is full of fluid, which protects and cushions the heart. Once
you have removed the pericardial sac, examine the four
chambers of the heart. Two dark, thinner-walled atria are
anterior to the two thicker-walled ventricles. The
organization of the heart keeps oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood separated. To trace the flow of blood
through the heart, slice a ventral opening by making a
smooth, continuous partial incision into the heart’s left
side.
•Carefully fold the ventral portion away from the dorsal
portion, as if opening a book. Deoxygenated blood
from the body enters the right atrium via the right
anterior vena cava, the left anterior vena cava, and the
posterior vena cava. From the right atrium, blood flows
through the tricuspid valve into the right then pumped
through the pulmonary valve to the lungs by way of
the pulmonary artery.
Arteries are vessels that carry blood away
from the heart. Valves prevent the blood
from flowing back into the chamber from
which it came. In the lungs, the blood
becomes oxygenated through gas exchange
in the alveoli. The blood then returns to the Aorta

heart through the pulmonary veins. Veins are

Right anterior

vena cava

vessels that carry blood toward the heart.

The blood enters the heart again in the left
Left anterior

vena cava

atrium and travels through the bicuspid valve Right atrium

to the left ventricle. From the left ventricle,

the blood is pumped through the aortic valve
Left atrium

and out of the heart through the aorta, the

largest artery in the body. Posterior Left ventricle

vena cava

Right ventricle

Heart, ventral
Following the path of the aorta, you will see that it immediately makes a
posterior turn, the aortic arch. Continuing caudally from the arch is the dorsal
aorta, which supplies blood to the posterior portion of the body (and may be
called the abdominal aorta below the diaphragm). The first branch is the celiac
artery (or celiac trunk). It diverges to form the hepatic artery, which supplies the
liver, and the gastrosplenic artery, which further subdivides to serve the stomach
and spleen. Continuing caudally, locate the superior mesenteric artery, which
supplies blood to the small intestine. Next, find the paired renal arteries that
carry blood to the kidneys and the gonadal arteries, which deliver blood to the
testes in males or the ovaries in females. Farther along the dorsal aorta you will
see the paired iliolumbar arteries that carry blood to the muscles of the back.
The last major branch forms the right common and the left common iliac
arteries, which supply blood to the legs. (which leads to the head). Likewise, the
left brachiocephalic artery supplies the left subclavian artery and the left
common carotid artery
•Veins have less-muscular walls than arteries and tend to be more
superficial (i.e., major arteries tend to lie deeper in the body than the
major veins). The veins merge until they reach the venae cavae, which
return blood to the right atrium of the heart. The venous system is in
some ways the inverse of the branching arterial system. The paired
common iliac veins flow into the inferior vena cava. As you trace the vena
cava cranially, you can locate the paired iliolumbar veins, the paired
gonadal veins, and the paired renal veins. The hepatic portal vein drains
the liver and merges with the inferior vena cava near the diaphragm
before flowing into the right atrium. Blood drains from the head via the
transverse jugular vein and the external jugular veins, and from there into
the subclavian veins, which merge to form the superior venae cavae
The circulatory system
transports various
substances through the
body, including dissolved
gases, nutrients,
hormones, defensive
cells, and cellular wastes.
Like other mammals (and
like birds), rabbits
possess a highly
branched network of
vessels and a four
chambered heart.
 Diagram of the thoracic cavity with heart
Thoracic cavity, superficial Heart, ventral
1.Thymus gland
2. Heart
3. Mediastinum
3
3
3

4. Right lung, superior

0
3
2

lobe
2
9

5. Right lung, middle lobe

6. Right lung, medial 4
2
3
2

inferior lobe
7. Right lung, lateral
1 2

inferior lobe 2
1
2

5
8. Left lung, middle lobe 8
9. Left lung, inferior lobe
3 9
10. Rib
11. Xiphoid process 1
7
12. Diaphragm, muscular
1
2 1
0 9

13. Diaphragm, centrum 0

1
4
1

tendineum 1 4
3

14. Phrenic v. 3
5
2

15. Esophagus 5
1

16. Transverse jugular 2

1

2
5
Thoracic cavity, superficial Heart, Dorsal
1

16. Transverse jugular v.

1 6
7

3
3
3
17. External jugular v.
18. Vertebral v.
1

3
0

19. Left ventricle

3
2

2
9
20. Right ventricle
21. Left atrium
2
2 4
8
1 2
8 9

7
2 22. Right atrium
23. Left anterior vena cava
2
3

4 2 0
2
1
2
6
24. Right anterior vena cava
2
2
25. Posterior vena cava
5 8 26. Pulmonary v.
27. Pulmonary a.
7 9
1
0
2 28. Ligamentum arteriosum
6 9 29. Aortic arch
30. Brachiocephalic a.
3 2
5
31. Right subclavian a.
2
1
32. Left subclavian a.
33. Left common carotid a.
34. Pericardium
Blood travels through the
aortic arch and to the
anterior regions of the body
through several important
vessels. The coronary
arteries supply blood to the
heart muscle itself. The right
brachiocephalic artery
supplies blood to the right
subclavian artery (which
leads into the right
shoulder) & the right
common carotid artery that
carry blood away from the
heart.
Valves prevent the blood from flowing
back into the chamber from which it
came. In the lungs, the blood becomes
oxygenated through gas exchange in
the alveoli. The blood then returns to
the heart through the pulmonary veins.
Veins are vessels that carry blood
toward the heart. The blood enters the
heart again in the left atrium and
travels through the bicuspid valve to
the left ventricle. From the left
ventricle, the blood is pumped through
the aortic valve and out of the heart
through the aorta, the largest artery in
the body.
 The nervous system is considered in two parts—the central nervous
system (CNS) including the brain, brainstem, and spinal cord, and the
peripheral nervous system (PNS) including the nerves that spread
throughout the entire body. The nervous system controls and
coordinates other body systems and transmits signals through the rabbit.
To view the components of the CNS, expose the brain. Place the rabbit
on its ventral surface. Remove all of the skin, muscle, and connective
tissue from the back of the skull and neck. It will be necessary to remove
the pinnae during this process. Insert a sharp pair of bone shears very
shallowly into the base of the skull. Carefully cut around the top of the
skull (make the anterior edge of your cut stay dorsal to the eyes). After
the circle has been cut, gently use forceps to remove the piece of bone
and expose the brain. Examine the rabbit’s brain.
The brainstem is the most caudal structure, leading from the
brain to the spinal cord. The brainstem regulates heart rate,
breathing, and other involuntary processes. In the posterior
portion of the brain is the cerebellum. The cerebellum plays an
important role in motor control. Just anterior to the cerebellum i
the cerebrum, the largest portion of the brain. This portion
appears as two pear-shaped structures, the hemispheres. The
hemispheres join at the corpus callosum. The cerebrum is the
center for thought processes, sensory integration, and memory.
At the most anterior portion of the brain are the olfactory bulbs.
They are primarily involved in the rabbit’s sense of smell. You
must carefully remove the brain to observe the ventral surface.
PERIPHERAL NERVES IN THE TRUNK
The central nervous system is connected with the trunk and
limbs by a segmental series of spinal nerves each containing
large numbers of both afferent and efferent nerve fibres.
(The terms afferent and efferent are to be preferred to
sensory and motor because all afferent impulses do not
produce conscious sensation and all efferent impulses do not
produce movement.) Each nerve emerges from the vertebral
column between two vertebrae and breaks into certain
primary branches of which the largest is aventral branch. The
ventral branches of the last five cervical and the first thoracic
spinal nerves form a network,...
. THE BRAIN
Examination of the brain requires first the
opening of the skull, which should be
performed with bone-forceps after the soft
tissues have been cleared away. It may be
commenced either from behind or from in
front, a convenient approach being to cut
across the roof of the cranium between the
front parts of the orbits, then to break away
the supraoccipital processes and cut
through the cranial wall along each side so
that pieces of the roof can be pried off. This
procedure is continued back to the level of
the ears. The temporal portion of the skull
should be...
 Dorsal Superficial Brain Ventral Superficial Brain

1 1
1. Olfactory
bulb 9. Olfactory tract
2. Median 10. Cerebral
fissure 2
9
hemisphere
3. Sylvian 11. Pituitary gland
fissure 12. Pons
4. Temporal 3

lobe
5. Pineal lobe
6. Cerebellum 4

7. Medulla 5

oblongata 12

8. Spinal Cord

8
THE SPINAL CORD AND SPINAL NERVES
The activities of all parts caudal to the head
are controlled through the spinal cord,
although in a few cases this influence may be
modified by cranial nerves, such as the vagus
or the spinal accessory. The spinal cord is an
organ which receives nerve-impulses through
afferent nerve-fibres and either transmits
them directly to appropriate efferent nerve-
fibres (simple reflex) or conveys them to
higher correlating centres in the brain, where
they may influence more complex responses.
It also conveys impulses from the brain to
posterior efferent paths. Hence the spinal
cord is composed of nerve-cell-bodies and
nerve-fibres in very large.
Thank you !!!!