Principles of Economics (1 of 2)

Global Edition

Part IV
Concepts and Problems In
Macroeconomics

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Part IV Concepts and Problems In
Macroeconomics
• When the macroeconomy is doing well, jobs are easy to
find, incomes are generally rising, and profits of
corporations are high.
• If the macroeconomy is in a slump, new jobs are scarce,
incomes are not growing, and profits are low.
• Given the large effect that the macroeconomy can have
on our lives, it is important that we understand how it
works.

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Principles of Economics (2 of 2)
Global Edition

Chapter 20
Introduction to
Macroeconomics

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Chapter Outline and Learning
Objectives
20.1 Macroeconomic Concerns
• Describe the primary three concerns of macroeconomics.
20.2 The Components of the Macroeconomy
• Discuss the interaction between the four components of
the macroeconomy.
20.3 A Brief History of Macroeconomics
• Summarize the macroeconomic history of the United
States between 1929 and 1970.
20.4 The U.S. Economy since 1970
• Describe the U.S. economy since 1970.
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Chapter 20 Introduction to
Macroeconomics (1 of 2)
• microeconomics Examines the functioning of individual
industries and the behavior of individual decision-making
units—firms and households.
• macroeconomics Deals with the economy as a whole.
Macroeconomics focuses on the determinants of total
national income, deals with aggregates such as aggregate
consumption and investment, and looks at the overall level
of prices instead of individual prices.

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Chapter 20 Introduction to
Macroeconomics (2 of 2)
• aggregate behavior The behavior of all households and
firms together.
• sticky prices Prices that do not always adjust rapidly to
maintain equality between quantity supplied and quantity
demanded.

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Macroeconomic Concerns
• Three of the major concerns of macroeconomics are:
– Output growth
– Unemployment
– Inflation and deflation

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Output Growth (1 of 4)
• business cycle The cycle of short-term ups and downs in
the economy.
• aggregate output The total quantity of goods and
services produced in an economy in a given period.

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Aggregate Output Examples:

Nominal GDP in 2020

$15 trillion

$3.8 trillion

$2.7 trillion

$33 billion

$73 billion

$748 billion

$21 trillion

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Aggregate Output Examples:

Nominal GDP in GDP/Capita in

2020 2020
China $15 trillion $10,500

Germany $3.8 trillion $45,700

India $2.7 trillion $1,900

Lebanon $33 billion $4,900

Luxembourg $73 billion $116,000

Switzerland $748 billion $86,000

USA $21 trillion $64,000

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Output Growth (4 of 4)
• expansion or boom The period in the business cycle
from a trough up to a peak during which output and
employment grow.
• contraction, recession, or slump The period in the
business cycle from a peak down to a trough during which
output and employment fall.
• depression A prolonged and deep recession.

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Figure 20.1 A Typical Business Cycle
• In this business cycle, the
economy is expanding as it
moves through point A from
the trough to the peak.
• When the economy moves
from a peak down to a
trough, through point B, the
economy is in recession

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Figure 20.2 U.S. Aggregate Output
(Real GDP), 1900–2017

• The periods of the Great Depression and World Wars I and

II show the largest fluctuations in aggregate output.
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Unemployment
• unemployment rate The percentage of the labor force
that is unemployed.
• The existence of unemployment seems to imply that the
aggregate labor market is not in equilibrium.

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Inflation and Deflation
• inflation An increase in the overall price level.
• hyperinflation A period of very rapid increases in the
overall price level.
• deflation A decrease in the overall price level.

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Hyperinflation examples:
• Bolivia in the 1980’s

• Zimbabwe in late 2000’s

• The highest inflation rate included
in the paper is 79,600,000,000
percent in mid-November, 2008.
That’s percent per month. At that
rate, the price level almost doubles
every day.
“Inflation in Zimbabwe has reached
such proportions that it destroyed
the value of a new national
currency before a single one of its
banknotes had been spent.”
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The Components of the
Macroeconomy
• To see the big picture of the macroeconomy, we divide the
participants in the economy into four broad groups:
1. Households
2. Firms
3. The government
4. The rest of the world
• Households and firms make up the private sector, the
government is the public sector, and the rest of the world is
the foreign sector.

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The Circular Flow Diagram
• circular flow A diagram showing the flows in and out of
the sectors in the economy.
• transfer payments Cash payments made by the
government to people who do not supply goods, services,
or labor in exchange for these payments. They include
Social Security benefits, veterans’ benefits, and welfare
payments.

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Figure 20.3 The Circular Flow of
Payments
• Households receive income from firms and the
government, purchase goods and services from
firms, and pay taxes to the government. They
also purchase foreign-made goods and
services (imports).
• Firms receive payments from households and
the government for goods and services; they
pay wages, dividends, interest, and rents to
households and taxes to the government.
• The government receives taxes from firms and
households, pays firms and households for
goods and services—including wages to
government workers—and pays interest and
transfers to households.
• Finally, people in other countries purchase
goods and services produced domestically
(exports).
• Note: Although not shown in this diagram,
firms and governments also purchase imports.

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The Three Market Arenas (1 of 6)
• Another way of looking at the ways households, firms, the
government, and the rest of the world relate to one another
is to consider the markets in which they interact.
• We divide the markets into three broad arenas:
1. The goods-and-services market
2. The labor market
3. The money (financial) market

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The Three Market Arenas (2 of 6)
Goods-and-Services Market
• Households and the government purchase goods and
services from firms in the goods-and-services market.
• Firms purchase goods and services from each other and
also supply to the goods-and-services market.
• Households, the government, and firms demand from this
market.
• The rest of the world buys from and sells to the goods-and-
services market.

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The Three Market Arenas (3 of 6)
Labor Market
• In the labor market, households supply labor, and firms
and the government demand labor.
• Labor is also supplied to and demanded from the rest of
the world.

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The Three Market Arenas (4 of 6)
Money Market
• Households supply funds to the money market (or financial
market) in the expectation of earning income in the form of
dividends on stocks and interest on bonds.
• Households also demand (borrow) funds from this market
to finance various purchases.
• Firms borrow to build new facilities in the hope of earning
more in the future.

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The Three Market Arenas (5 of 6)
Money Market
• The government borrows by issuing bonds.
• The rest of the world borrows from and lends to the money
market.
• Much of this borrowing and lending is coordinated by
financial institutions, which take deposits from one group
and lend them to others.

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The Three Market Arenas (6 of 6)
Money Market
• Treasury bonds, notes, or bills Promissory notes issued
by the federal government when it borrows money.
• corporate bonds Promissory notes issued by
corporations when they borrow money.
• shares of stock Financial instruments that give to the
holder a share in the firm’s ownership and therefore the
right to share in the firm’s profits.
• dividends The portion of a firm’s profits that the firm pays
out each period to its shareholders.

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The Role of the Government in the
Macroeconomy
• fiscal policy Government policies concerning taxes and
spending.
• monetary policy The tools used by the Federal Reserve
to control short-term interest rates.
• Macroeconomics usually assumes there is a single interest rate when in reality, there are many
different interest rates in the real world.

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A Brief History of Macroeconomics
• Great Depression The period of severe economic
contraction and high unemployment that began in 1929
and continued throughout the 1930s.
• fine-tuning The phrase used by Walter Heller to refer to
the government’s role in regulating inflation and
unemployment.
• stagflation A situation of both high inflation and high
unemployment.

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Economics In Practice
Macroeconomics in Literature
The underlying phenomena that economists
study are the stuff of novels as well as graphs
and equations.
The Great
If you look at Figure 20.2 for these two Gatsby, set in
periods, you will see the translation of the 1920s
Fitzgerald and Steinbeck into
macroeconomics.

CRITICAL THINKING
The Grapes of
1. As we indicate in the introduction to this Wrath, set in the
chapter, macroeconomics focuses on three
early 1930s
concerns. Which of these concerns is covered
in The Grapes of Wrath excerpt?
2. What economics textbook is featured in The
Great Gatsby? Source: From The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck,
copyright 1939, renewed © 1967 by John Steinbeck. Used
Hint: Go to fairmodel.com.yale.edu/rayfair/pdf by permission of Viking Penguin, a division of Penguin
/2000c.pdf. Group (USA) Inc. and Penguin Group (UK) Ltd.
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Figure 20.4 Aggregate Output (Real
GDP), 1970 I–2017 IV

• Aggregate output in the United States since 1970 has

risen overall, but there have been five recessionary
periods: 1974 I–1975 I, 1980 II–1982 IV, 1990 III–1991 I,
2001 I–2001 III, and 2008 I–2009 II.
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Figure 20.5 Unemployment Rate,
1970 I–2017 IV

• The U.S. unemployment rate since 1970 shows wide

variations.
• The five recessionary reference periods show increases in
the unemployment rate.
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Figure 20.6 Inflation Rate (Percentage
Change in the GDP Deflator, Four-
Quarter Average), 1970 I–2017 IV

• Since 1970, inflation has been high in two periods: 1973

IV–1975 IV and 1979 I–1981 IV.
• Inflation between 1983 and 1992 was moderate.
• Since 1992, it has been fairly low.
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Review Terms and Concepts
• aggregate behavior • Great Depression
• aggregate output • hyperinflation
• business cycle • inflation
• circular flow • macroeconomics
• contraction, recession, or • microeconomics
slump • monetary policy
• corporate bonds • shares of stock
• deflation • stagflation
• depression • sticky prices
• dividends • transfer payments
• expansion or boom • Treasury bonds, notes, or bills
• fine-tuning • unemployment rate
• fiscal policy
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