STUDY OF ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY

Environment refers to all the conditions that

influence and affect the development and
sustainability of life of all organisms present on the
earth. It is an immediate surrounding of living
organisms in which it lives and operates.
Ecology is the study of inter-relationship of
organisms with physical as well as biotic
environments.
Organisms and environment are interrelated and
interdependent. Any change in the environment
affects the living organisms and vice-versa.
An ecosystem is the structural and functional
unit of ecology. It is a community of living
organisms along with the abiotic components
interacting together through energy flows and
nutrient cycles.
 Some Important concepts of Ecology

Ecological hierarchy follows the below order with an increase in size and
complexity
Organism → Species (population) → Biotic community → Ecosystem →
Biome → Biosphere
Organism: is the smallest and basic unit of ecology. It includes all the living
organisms, unicellular or multicellular having a fixed lifespan.
Species or Population: members of the same species living in a specific
geographical area. A species is a group of organisms that have a common gene
pool and can interbreed to produce fertile offspring.
Endemic species are found only in a particular area, e.g. kangaroos found in
Australia
Key-stone species is mostly a predator species, which is not present in large
number but has a major influence on the characteristics of a community, e.g.
lion in the forest.
Critical Link species, which help other species in the vital activities, e.g.
pollinators for plants, parasitic and symbiotic relationships.
Community: the interacting group of various
different species living in an area, it includes
plants, animals and microbes.
Ecosystem: it is the functional unit of the ecology.
It includes the biotic community and the
interacting physical environment associated with
it. Biotic components and abiotic components
constitute an ecosystem.
Biotic components include producers,
consumers and decomposers.
Abiotic components include climatic conditions
such as temperature, soil, water, air, light;
inorganic and organic substances such as nitrogen,
phosphorus, sulfur, carbohydrate, protein, lipid,
etc.
Biome: consists of communities present in a large
geographical area.
Biosphere: it is the total sum of all ecosystems. It
is also known as the zone of life on Earth. It
includes all the living organisms, their
relationships and interaction with the elements of
atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.
Habitat: It is a natural environment of an
organism where it grows, lives and reproduces. It
is an ecological area best-suited for an organism.
Habitats vary in the physical and chemical
composition. It includes abiotic components like
water, temperature, light and soil and biotic
components too, e.g. parasites, pathogens and
predators interacting with them constantly. Life
exists not only in the most favorable habitat but
also in the most extreme and harsh environment.
Ecology at an organism level tries to understand
how different species adapt to their environments
for their survival and reproduction.
Niche: includes all the interaction of a species
with the biotic and abiotic factors of its
environment. Each species has a defined range
of various abiotic factors that it can tolerate, a
number of resources it utilizes for survival and
performs a specific functional role in an
ecosystem, all these together form a niche,
which is unique to a species.
 Abiotic factors

Temperature: It is the most important

environmental ecological factor. It ranges from a
subzero level in polar areas to >50℃ in tropical
desserts. In thermal springs and deep-sea
hydrothermal vents, the temperature even
exceeds 100℃. Temperature affects the kinetics of
enzymes and alters metabolic and physiological
functions of organisms.
Eurythermal- organisms, that can tolerate a wide
range of temperatures
Stenothermal- organisms, that can tolerate a
narrow range of temperatures
Water: life originated in water and organisms
cannot sustain without water. Organisms need
special adaptations to live in water. Various factors
like pH, chemical composition govern the quality of
the water, which is an important factor for
organism inhabiting the area. The salinity of water
varies in different water resources, e.g. it is 5
(measured as salt concentration in part per
thousand) in rivers, lakes, 30-35 in the ocean and
>100 in hypersaline lagoons
Euryhaline- organisms, that can tolerate a wide
range of salinities
Stenohaline- organisms, that can tolerate a
narrow range of salinities
Light: Sunlight is the source of energy that flows
in an ecosystem. Producers convert light energy to
chemical energy in the process of photosynthesis.
The spectral quality of light is also an important
factor, e.g. UV component is harmful to many
organisms. Many plants require critical daylight for
flowering, the process is known
as photoperiodism.

Soil: different places have different quality of the

soil. They differ due to climatic conditions,
weathering process and soil development.
COMPONENTS OF
ECOSYSTEM
The main components of an ecosystem are as
follows:
Biotic Components: a. Producers: These are the
autotrophic organisms that can produce their own food
using sunlight through photosynthesis or chemicals
through chemosynthesis. Examples include plants, algae,
and some bacteria.
b. Consumers: These are heterotrophic organisms that
cannot produce their own food and rely on other
organisms for nutrition. Consumers can be further
classified into different trophic levels based on their
feeding habits:
•Herbivores: Consumers that eat only plants.
•Carnivores: Consumers that eat other animals.
•Omnivores: Consumers that eat both plants and animals.
•Detritivores: Consumers that feed on decaying organic
matter.
Abiotic Components: a. Sunlight: Energy from the sun
is essential for photosynthesis and drives many
ecological processes.
b. Air (Atmosphere): The mixture of gases, particularly
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen, which are vital for
the survival of living organisms.
c. Water: Essential for all forms of life, water is crucial for
various metabolic processes and serves as a habitat for
many aquatic organisms.
d. Soil: A vital component for terrestrial ecosystems,
providing a medium for plant growth and acting as a
reservoir for nutrients.
e. Temperature: A critical factor influencing the
distribution and behavior of organisms.
f. Climate: The long-term pattern of temperature,
humidity, wind, and other atmospheric conditions in a
particular region.
g. Minerals and Nutrients: Essential elements required by
Ecological Interactions: a. Symbiosis:
Interactions between different species that
can be beneficial (mutualism), harmful
(parasitism), or neutral (commensalism).
b. Predation: The process by which one
organism (the predator) hunts and consumes
another organism (the prey).
c. Competition: When different organisms vie
for the same resources like food, territory, or
mates.
d. Food Chains and Food Webs: The transfer
of energy and nutrients through different
trophic levels, showing the interdependence
of species in an ecosystem.
 STRUCTURE
AND FUNCTION
OF ECOSYSTEM
Structure of Ecosystem:
•Biotic Components: The living organisms within an
ecosystem are classified into different trophic
levels based on their feeding relationships. These
trophic levels include: a. Producers/Autotrophs:
Organisms that produce their food through
photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. They convert
energy from sunlight or inorganic compounds into
organic matter. Examples: plants, algae, some
bacteria. b. Consumers/Heterotrophs: Organisms
that consume other organisms for their energy and
nutrients.
•Primary Consumers/Herbivores: Feed on
producers. Examples: herbivorous animals like
deer, grasshoppers, etc.
•Secondary Consumers: Feed on primary
consumers. Examples: carnivorous animals like
snakes, foxes, etc.

•Tertiary Consumers: Feed on secondary

consumers. Examples: top predators like lions,
eagles, etc. c. Decomposers: Organisms that break
down dead organic matter into simpler inorganic
substances. They play a crucial role in recycling
nutrients back into the ecosystem. Examples:
fungi, bacteria, detritivores (organisms that feed
on dead matter).
Abiotic Components: The non-living elements
of an ecosystem are essential for the survival of
the biotic components. These include: a.
Physical Environment: Climate, temperature,
rainfall, humidity, geology, and topography of
the area. b. Chemical Environment: Soil
composition, air composition, and water quality.
c. Energy Sources: Sunlight is the primary
source of energy for most ecosystems.
Function of Ecosystem:
•Energy Flow: Energy flows through an ecosystem
in a unidirectional manner. It enters the ecosystem
through the producers, who convert sunlight into
chemical energy. This energy then moves through
the trophic levels as organisms are consumed,
with each level utilizing some energy for growth,
metabolism, and reproduction. However, energy is
lost as heat at each transfer, making the top
predators rely on large areas to sustain
themselves.
•Nutrient Cycling: Nutrients, such as carbon,
nitrogen, phosphorus, and others, are essential for
the growth and development of living organisms.
Nutrient cycling involves the continuous
movement of these elements between the biotic
and abiotic components of the ecosystem.
Decomposers play a vital role in breaking down
dead organic matter, releasing nutrients back into
the soil, water, or air for reuse by plants and other
organisms.

•Biodiversity: Ecosystems support a wide variety of

plant and animal species, each of which plays a
unique role in the ecosystem's functioning.
Biodiversity contributes to ecosystem stability and
•Interactions and Interdependence: Ecosystems
are characterized by intricate interactions and
interdependencies between different organisms.
For example, pollinators (like bees) facilitate plant
reproduction, predators help control prey
populations, and symbiotic relationships (like
mutualism or commensalism) benefit multiple
species.

•Stability and Resilience: A healthy and well-

balanced ecosystem tends to be more stable and
resilient in the face of disturbances or
environmental changes. Biodiversity, nutrient
cycling, and energy flow are essential factors
contributing to the stability of ecosystems.
Energy flow refers to the transfer of energy
through an ecosystem as it moves from one
Here's how
trophic levelenergy flows through an
to another.
ecosystem: (Autotrophs): Producers, such as
1.Producers
plants, algae, and some bacteria, are capable of
capturing energy from sunlight (or in some cases,
chemical reactions) through photosynthesis or
chemosynthesis. They convert this radiant energy
into chemical energy in the form of organic
compounds, primarily glucose. This process is the
foundation of the food chain.
2.Primary Consumers (Herbivores): Primary
consumers are the organisms that directly
consume producers for their energy needs. They
are typically herbivores, feeding on plants or
algae. By consuming producers, they obtain the
1.Secondary Consumers: Secondary consumers
are the organisms that eat primary consumers.
They are usually carnivores or omnivores, preying
on herbivorous animals. The energy from the
primary consumers is transferred to the secondary
consumers through their consumption.

2.Tertiary Consumers and Beyond: The energy flow

can continue through additional levels of
consumers, with each higher trophic level feeding
on the one below it. For example, tertiary
consumers may prey on secondary consumers,
and quaternary consumers may prey on tertiary
consumers, and so on.
3.Decomposers: As organisms die or produce
waste, their remains and organic matter are
broken down by decomposers (fungi, bacteria,
and detritivores). Decomposers play a critical
role in the ecosystem by releasing energy
stored in the dead matter and recycling
nutrients back into the environment, making
them available for use by producers once
again.
 FOOD WEB
A food web is a more complex and interconnected
representation of feeding relationships within an
ecosystem compared to a simple linear food chain.
It is a graphical illustration of the various feeding
connections and interactions among different
species in an ecosystem.

The food web includes multiple interconnected

food chains, depicting a network of relationships
among organisms based on their roles as
producers, consumers, and decomposers.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID

An ecological pyramid, also known as a trophic

pyramid, is a graphical representation that
shows the relative energy, biomass, or number
of organisms at each trophic level in an
ecosystem. It is a way to illustrate the flow of
energy and matter through different levels of a
food chain or food web.
1.First Trophic Level (Primary Producers): This level
represents the base of the pyramid and includes
the primary producers, which are autotrophic
organisms like plants, algae, and some bacteria.
These organisms convert solar energy into
chemical energy through photosynthesis or
chemosynthesis. They form the foundation of the
ecosystem by capturing energy from the sun and
converting it into organic matter.
2. Second Trophic Level (Primary Consumers):
This level consists of herbivores, which are
organisms that feed directly on the primary
producers. They are called primary consumers
because they occupy the second trophic level
in the food chain and rely on plant material for
energy. Examples include herbivorous animals
such as deer, rabbits, and insects.
3. Third Trophic Level (Secondary Consumers): This
level comprises carnivores that eat herbivores.
These organisms are referred to as secondary
consumers because they occupy the third trophic
level in the food chain. They obtain energy by
consuming primary consumers. Examples include
predators like wolves, lions, and birds of prey.
In some ecosystems, there can be additional
trophic levels, each representing consumers
that feed on the level below. For example, there
can be tertiary consumers (carnivores that eat
other carnivores), quaternary consumers
(carnivores that eat tertiary consumers), and so
on. The higher the trophic level, the fewer
organisms it can support since energy is lost at
each level due to metabolism, heat production,
and other inefficiencies.
There are three main types of ecological
pyramids:

1.Pyramid of Energy: This type of pyramid

represents the flow of energy through the
ecosystem. It shows the amount of energy
available at each trophic level and is typically
measured in units of energy per unit area or time
(e.g., kilocalories per square meter per year).
Energy is lost as heat with each transfer between
trophic levels, so the pyramid narrows as you
move up, reflecting the decreasing amount of
available energy.
2. Pyramid of Biomass: This pyramid illustrates
the total amount of living organic matter
(biomass) present at each trophic level.
Biomass is measured in units such as grams per
square meter or kilograms per hectare. Like the
energy pyramid, the biomass pyramid typically
narrows as you move up the trophic levels due
to the decreasing amount of biomass available
at higher levels.
3. Pyramid of Numbers: This type of pyramid
represents the number of individual organisms
at each trophic level. It shows the population
size of organisms at different levels and may
or may not follow a regular pattern of
narrowing as you move up the trophic levels.
 TYPES OF
ECOSYSTEM
1. Terrestrial Ecosystems:

a. Forest Ecosystem: These ecosystems are

dominated by trees and woody vegetation.
Forests can be further classified into tropical
rainforests, temperate deciduous forests, boreal
forests, and others.

b. Grassland Ecosystem: Grasslands are

characterized by vast expanses of grasses and
herbaceous plants, with few or no trees. Examples
include savannas and prairies
c. Desert Ecosystem: Deserts are arid
regions with minimal precipitation and
limited vegetation. They can be hot deserts
(e.g., Sahara) or cold deserts (e.g., Gobi).
d. Tundra Ecosystem: Tundra ecosystems
are found in polar regions and high
mountains. They have low temperatures,
short growing seasons, and a vegetation
cover of lichens, mosses, and dwarf shrubs.
2. Aquatic Ecosystems: a. Marine Ecosystem:
Marine ecosystems cover saltwater
environments, including oceans, seas, and
estuaries. They are the largest ecosystems on
Earth and support a diverse range of marine
organisms.

b. Freshwater Ecosystem: Freshwater

ecosystems encompass bodies of water with low
salinity, such as rivers, lakes, ponds, and
streams. They are essential for providing
freshwater resources and supporting various
aquatic life forms.
3. Wetland Ecosystem: Wetlands are transitional
areas between terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems. They can be classified into marshes,
swamps, bogs, and fens, depending on factors
like water flow and vegetation.

4. Urban Ecosystem: Urban ecosystems are

human-made environments, including cities and
towns, where human activities significantly
influence the ecology of the area. They often
include parks, gardens, and other green spaces.
5. Agricultural Ecosystem: Agricultural
ecosystems are cultivated lands used for
farming and agriculture. They are heavily
influenced by human activities, including crop
cultivation, livestock farming, and the use of
pesticides and fertilizers.

6. Coral Reef Ecosystem: Coral reefs are diverse

marine ecosystems formed by colonies of tiny
animals called coral polyps. They are among the
most biologically productive and diverse
ecosystems, supporting a wide range of marine
life.
7. Mountain Ecosystem: Mountain ecosystems
occur at high elevations and are characterized by
unique climate conditions and specialized flora and
fauna adapted to colder temperatures and lower
oxygen levels.

8.Estuarine Ecosystem: Estuaries are areas where

freshwater rivers meet and mix with saltwater
from the ocean. These brackish water ecosystems
support a diverse array of plant and animal
species.