Introduction to Ferrous Materials

Rishabh Singh
Sr. Technologist, Automation
Metal alloys, by virtue of composition, are often grouped into two classes—
1. Ferrous: Ferrous alloys, those in which iron is the principal constituent, include steels and cast irons.
2. Non-ferrous: all alloys that are not iron based

Ferrous alloys—those of which iron is the prime constituent—are produced in larger quantities than any other metal type.

They are especially important as engineering construction materials. Their widespread use is accounted for by three factors:
(1) iron-containing compounds exist in abundant quantities within the earth’s crust
(2) metallic iron and steel alloys may be produced using relatively economical extraction, refining, alloying, and fabrication
techniques
(3) ferrous alloys are extremely versatile, in that they may be tailored to have a wide range of mechanical and physical
properties.

The principal disadvantage of many ferrous alloys is their susceptibility to corrosion.

Classification Scheme for various Ferrous Alloys
Steels:
Steels are iron–carbon alloys that may contain appreciable concentrations of other alloying elements; there are thousands
of alloys that have different compositions and/or heat treatments. The mechanical properties are sensitive to the content of
carbon, which is normally less than 1.0 wt%. Some of the more common steels are classified according to carbon
concentration—namely, into low, medium, and high carbon.
Subclasses also exist within each group according to the concentration of other alloying elements. Plain carbon steels
contain only residual concentrations of impurities other than carbon and a little manganese. For alloy steels, more alloying
elements are intentionally added in specific concentrations.

1. Low-Carbon Steels
These generally contain less than about 0.25 wt% C and are unresponsive to heat treatments intended to form martensite;
strengthening is accomplished by cold work. Of all the different steels, those produced in the greatest quantities fall within
the low-carbon classification. Microstructures consist of ferrite and pearlite constituents.
These alloys are relatively soft and weak but have outstanding ductility and toughness; in addition, they are machinable,
weldable, and, of all steels, are the least expensive to produce.
Typical applications include automobile body components, structural shapes (I-beams, channel and angle iron), and sheets
that are used in pipelines, buildings, bridges, and tin cans.
Another group of low-carbon alloys are the high-strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steels. They contain other alloying elements
such as copper, vanadium, nickel, and molybdenum in combined concentrations as high as 10 wt%, and possess higher
strengths than the plain low-carbon steels.
2. Medium-Carbon Steels
The medium-carbon steels have carbon concentrations
between about 0.25 and 0.60 wt%. These alloys may be
heat-treated by austenitizing, quenching, and then
tempering to improve their mechanical properties. They
are most often utilized in the tempered condition, having
microstructures of tempered martensite.
These heat-treated alloys are stronger than the low-
carbon steels, but at a sacrifice of ductility and toughness.
Applications include railway wheels and tracks, gears,
crankshafts, and other machine parts and high-strength
structural components calling for a combination of high
strength, wear resistance, and toughness.
3. High-Carbon Steels
The high-carbon steels, normally having carbon contents
between 0.60 and 1.4 wt%,are the hardest, strongest, and
yet least ductile of the carbon steels. They are almost
always used in a hardened & tempered condition and as
such, are especially wear resistant and capable of holding a sharp cutting edge. These steels are utilized as cutting tools and
dies for forming and shaping materials, as well as in knives, razors, hacksaw blades, springs, and high-strength wire.
Stainless Steels
The stainless steels are highly resistant to corrosion (rusting) in a variety of environments, especially the ambient atmosphere.
Their predominant alloying element is chromium; a concentration of at least 11 wt% Cr is required. Corrosion resistance may
also be enhanced by nickel and molybdenum additions.
Stainless steels are divided into three classes on the basis of the predominant phase constituent of the microstructure—
martensitic, ferritic, or austenitic.
The austenitic stainless steels are the most corrosion resistant because of the high chromium contents and also the nickel
additions; they are produced in the largest quantities. Both martensitic and ferritic stainless steels are magnetic; the austenitic
stainless is not.
Cast Irons
Generically, cast irons are a class of ferrous alloys with carbon contents above 2.14 wt%; in practice, however, most cast irons
contain between 3.0 and 4.5 wt% C and, in addition, other alloying elements.
They are easily melted and amenable to casting. Furthermore, some cast irons are very brittle, and casting is the most
convenient fabrication technique.
The most common cast iron types are gray, nodular, white, malleable, and compacted graphite.

Gray Iron
The carbon and silicon contents of gray cast irons vary between 2.5 and 4.0 wt% and 1.0
and 3.0 wt%, respectively. For most of these cast irons, the graphite exists in the form of
flakes (similar to corn flakes), which are normally surrounded by an α-ferrite or pearlite
matrix. Because of these graphite flakes, a fractured surface takes on a gray appearance,
hence its name.
Cementite (Fe3C) is a metastable compound, and under some circumstances it can be
made to dissociate or decompose to form α-ferrite and graphite.
Mechanically, gray iron is comparatively weak and brittle in tension as a consequence of
its microstructure; the tips of the graphite flakes are sharp and pointed and may serve as
points of stress concentration when an external tensile stress is applied. Strength and
ductility are much higher under compressive loads.
They are very effective in damping vibrational energy, exhibit a high resistance to wear.
Ductile (or Nodular) Iron
Adding a small amount of magnesium and/or cerium to the gray iron before casting produces a
distinctly different microstructure and set of mechanical properties. Graphite still forms, but as
nodules or sphere-like particles instead of flakes. The resulting alloy is called ductile or nodular iron.
Castings are stronger and much more ductile than gray iron, in fact, ductile iron has mechanical
characteristics approaching those of steel. Typical applications for this material include valves, pump
bodies, crankshafts, gears, and other automotive and machine components.

White Iron
For low-silicon cast irons (containing less than 1.0 wt% Si) and rapid cooling rates, most of the
carbon exists as cementite instead of graphite. fracture surface of this alloy has a white appearance,
and thus it is termed white cast iron.
Thick sections may have only a surface layer of white iron that was “chilled” during the casting
process; gray iron forms at interior regions, which cool more slowly. As a consequence of large
amounts of the cementite phase, white iron is extremely hard but also very brittle, to the point of
being virtually unmachinable. Its use is limited to applications that necessitate a very hard and
wear-resistant surface, without a high degree of ductility—for example, as rollers in rolling mills.
Malleable Iron
Heating white iron at temperatures between 800 and 900C (1470 and 1650F)
for a prolonged time period and in a neutral atmosphere (to prevent oxidation)
causes a decomposition of the cementite, forming graphite, which exists in the
form of clusters or rosettes surrounded by a ferrite or pearlite matrix,
depending on cooling rate.
The microstructure is similar to that of nodular iron, which accounts for relatively high strength and
appreciable ductility or malleability. Representative applications include connecting rods,
transmission gears, and differential cases for the automotive industry, and also flanges, pipe
fittings, and valve parts for railroad, marine, and other heavy-duty services.

Compacted Graphite Iron

A relatively recent addition to the family of cast irons is compacted graphite iron (CGI). As with
gray, ductile, and malleable irons, carbon exists as graphite, whose formation is promoted by the
presence of silicon. Silicon content ranges between 1.7 & 3.0 wt%, whereas carbon concentration
is normally between 3.1 and 4.0 wt%. Their microstructure is intermediate between that of gray
iron and ductile (nodular) iron &, in fact, some of the graphite (less than 20%) may be as nodules.
An increase in degree of nodularity of the graphite particles leads to enhancements of both
strength and ductility.
Compacted graphite irons are now being used in a number of important applications, including
diesel engine blocks, exhaust manifolds, gearbox housings, brake discs for high-speed trains.