Diseases &

Immunity
IGCSE Chapter 10
Learning outcomes (core)
 Describe a pathogen as a disease-causing organism
 Describe a transmissible disease as a disease in which the pathogen can be
passed from one host to another
 State that a pathogen is transmitted:
 (a) by direct contact, including through blood and other body fluids
 (b) indirectly, including from contaminated surfaces, food, animals and air
 Describe the body defences, limited to: skin, hairs in the nose, mucus, stomach
acid and white blood cells
 Explain the importance of the following in controlling the spread of disease:
 (a) a clean water supply
 (b) hygienic food preparation
 (c) good personal hygiene
 (d) waste disposal
 (e) sewage treatment (details of the stages of sewage treatment are not required)
Learning outcomes (extended)

 Describe active immunity as defence against a pathogen by antibody production in the body
 State that each pathogen has its own antigens, which have specific shapes
 Describe antibodies as proteins that bind to antigens leading to direct destruction of pathogens or
marking of pathogens for destruction by phagocytes
 State that specific antibodies have complementary shapes which fit specific antigens
 Explain that active immunity is gained after an infection by a pathogen or by vaccination
 Outline the process of vaccination:
 (a) weakened pathogens or their antigens are put into the body
 (b) the antigens stimulate an immune response by lymphocytes which produce antibodies
 (c) memory cells are produced that give long-term immunity
 Explain the role of vaccination in controlling the spread of diseases
 Explain that passive immunity is a short-term defence against a pathogen by antibodies acquired
from another individual, including across the placenta and in breast milk
 Explain the importance of breast-feeding for the development of passive immunity in infants
 State that memory cells are not produced in passive immunity
Learning outcomes (extended)

 State that some diseases are caused by the immune system targeting
and destroying body cells, limited to type 1 diabetes
 Describe cholera as a disease caused by a bacterium which is
transmitted in contaminated water
 Explain that the cholera bacterium produces a toxin that causes
secretion of chloride ions into the small intestine, causing osmotic
movement of water into the gut, causing diarrhoea, dehydration and
loss of ions from the blood
 Pathogens
 A pathogen is defined as a disease-causing organism.

 A transmissible disease is a disease in which the pathogen can be

passed from one host to another.

 Toxins are poisonous waste products produced by pathogenic

bacteria that damage host cells.

 Clostridium bacteria, which causes tetanus, is fatal in small amounts

(0.00023g).

 Viral diseases include cold, measles, chickenpox, AIDS etc.

 Direct contact transmission
 The search is on for new varieties of crop plants that are resistant

to fungal diseases.

 Pathogens can be spread either through direct or indirect contact.

 Direct contact involves the pathogen being transferred via blood or

body fluids.

 For example, STDs (sexually transmitted diseases) are

transferred through direct contact.

 HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) is also passed on by

sharing drug needles that allows the pathogens to be passed on.

 Indirect contact transmission
 Indirect contact involves acquiring infection from pathogens present on
contaminated surfaces, contaminated water, from animals, and from air.

 Raw meat carries bacteria, and if not adequately cooked, will harm the consumer.
For example, E.coli.

 Salmonella is a common food poisoning caused by the toxin produced by

Salmonella typhimurium and Salmonella enteritidis.

 These bacteria live in the intestines of animals such as ducks, cattle, and chickens.

 Food poisoning symptoms include diarrhoea, vomiting, and stomach aches.

 Frozen poultry must be properly defrosted before consumption.

 Milk should be pasteurized and the utensil used for defrosting must not be used for
other vegetables/fruits.
 Water contamination & waste

disposal
When bacteria enter water, they contaminate it.

 Typhoid, diseases in the alimentary canal, and cholera tend to manifest.

 These bacteria pass out in the faeces and if they reach rivers, they get
carried into water reservoirs.

 Hence, it is essential that drinking water is purified and faeces must be

made harmless (sewage treatment).

 Filtration and chlorination are done to purify water by eliminated

harmful microorganisms.

 Waste disposal should be done properly to prevent flies.

 Flies also feed on waste and pick up harmful microorganisms that can be
transmitted to other animals.
 Airborne infection

 Upon sneezing, coughing, spitting, and breathing out, liquid droplets are

sent into the air.

 They remain in the air for a while and if these droplets contain viruses or

bacteria, they can affect other people.

 They can land on food and simply be inhaled by another person.

 Flu, chickenpox, and measles are spread this way.

 Aerosols can be natural or anthropogenic. Natural aerosols are fog or

mist, dust, forest exudates and geyser steam.

Anthropogenic aerosols are particulate air pollutants and smoke.

 Mechanical barriers

 The body comprises of three defense lines: mechanical

barriers, chemical barriers, and cells.

 Mechanical barrier is the outer layer of our epidermis that

prevents bacteria from entering the body.

 However, upon a cut or damage, bacteria begin to enter.

 Nose has hair that traps dust and bacteria.

 Chemical barriers & cells
 HCl in the stomach helps in killing most of the bacteria entering from food.

 Mucus traps pathogens and dust and prevents them from entering the lungs.

 It can be coughed out or the individual can blow his/her nose.

 When the bacteria gets past the mechanical and chemical barriers, the body
has another line of defense – white blood cells.

 Phagocytes perform phagocytosis while lymphocytes produce antibodies.

 Vaccination helps in acquiring immunity against a specific infection.

 The presence of the weakened pathogen in the vaccine triggers WBCs to make
specific antibodies.

 Thus, when the person is exposed to the disease, he/she is already immune
and that prevents the disease from developing.
 Antibodies & antigens
 There are chemical molecules present on the surface of all cells
known as antigens.

 Lymphocytes produce antibodies that are complementary to

the antigen and attack it. They lock on to antigens leading to
direct destruction of pathogens.

 They attack bacteria or foreign substances that enter the body.

 Many a times, antibodies mark antigens on foreign substances

that help phagocytes to find and engulf them.

 Lymphocytes may even clump bacteria together or neutralize

toxins in them.
 Active & innate immunity
 Active immunity refers to the defense against a pathogen by
antibody production in the body.

 Some specific antibodies produced by lymphocytes are stored in the

lymph nodes that divide quickly to make more.

 This suggests that the body is immune to a specific disease, so for

instance, post measles or chicken pox, the individual is unlikely to
manifest it again.

 This is known as active immunity.

 It can also be attained by vaccination.

 Inheriting acquired antibodies from mother’s milk (colostrum) is known

as a form of passive immunity.
 Passive immunity
 It is a way of acquiring immunity by injecting the patient with serum from a
person who has recovered from the disease.

 Fibrinogen is removed from the plasma.

 The plasma is separated and antibodies are extracted from the donor’s blood.

 This is known as passive immunity and is temporary immunity as no memory

cells are formed in the patient’s body.

 Mother’s milk contains WBCs that produce antibodies as the baby might be
vulnerable.

 The baby doesn’t have a developed immune system as yet, and mother’s milk is
also a form of passive immunity and is temporary as memory cells are not
formed.
 Passive immunity is a short-term defence against a pathogen by antibodies
acquired from another individual, including across the placenta and in breast milk.
 Memory cells are not produced in passive immunity.
 Vaccination

 Vaccination is an act of introducing a vaccine carrying a harmless or

weakened form of the pathogen into the body in order to develop
immunity against it.

 This pathogen contains specific antigens on its surface, and will illicit an
immune response in the body.

 Lymphocytes produce antibodies. The B lymphocytes (from bone marrow)

produce antibodies that are released into the blood.

 Some of them are stored as memory cells in the lymph nodes.

 Helper T cells (from thymus gland) stimulate B cells to divide and

produce antibodies. They also stimulate phagocytes to ingest any cells
carrying antibodies on their surface.

 Memory cells are produced that give long-term immunity.

Vaccination controls the spread
of disease
 Herd immunity aids in preventing epidemics and pandemics in a population of an area.

 Given that a huge population from an area is vaccinated, it reduces the risk of mass

infection.

 If not, the risk of infection is high and many people might be contagious and infected by

the pathogen.

 There is a very small risk of side-effects from vaccines, just like with all medicines.

 MMR vaccine was wrongly claimed for inducing autism and bowel disease in children.

This led to a drop in the rates of MMR vaccine in Britain, leaving the population

vulnerable.

 Sometimes, vaccination programs aim to eradicate a disease completely and social

conditions have improved due to routine vaccinations.

 Type 1 diabetes

 Type 1 diabetes is referred to a juvenile-onset diabetes and is a

chronic condition in which the pancreas produces little or no
insulin.

 It mainly affects young people.

 There is a slight inherited tendency for this disease, but it can be

triggered other environmental factors such as a virus infection.

 This may cause the immune system to attack the islet cells of
pancreas that produce insulin, and is classified as an autoimmune
disease.

 Thus, the patient will need an external source of insulin (via

injection) to regulate their blood sugar levels in order to lead a
normal life.
 Cholera
 This disease is caused by Vibrio cholera and it causes acute diarrhoea.

 These bacteria live in dirty water that is contaminated by sewage and are
transmitted when it is consumed or used to wash food.

 This bacteria multiplies in the small intestine and invades the epithelial cells.
After embedding, it releases toxins which begin to irritate the lining resulting in the
secretion of large amounts of water, salts, and chloride ions.

 This in turn decreases the osmotic potential in the gut contents, thereby drawing
more water from surrounding tissues and bloody by osmosis.

 This causes undigested food to be watery resulting in acute diarrhoea.

 The treatment includes rehydration therapy and restoring salts lost by the body.
Too much loss of body fluids and salt results in dehydration and kidney failure.

 A controlled solution is injected into the body to restore the imbalance.


 References

 HAYWARD, DAVE. CAMBRIDGE IGCSE BIOLOGY Workbook 3rd Edition.

HODDER EDUCATION GROUP, 2017.
 CIE IGCSE Biology Revision Notes | Save My Exams. Save My Exams.
(2021). Retrieved 22 September 2021, from
https://www.savemyexams.co.uk/igcse-biology-cie-new/revision-
notes/.