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Lec. 4 - Levelling (1)

Levelling is the process of determining the relative heights and depths of objects on Earth's surface, essential for engineering projects like roads and dams. It involves concepts such as level surfaces, level lines, and various errors that can occur during measurements due to natural causes. The document also discusses methods like ordinary and reciprocal levelling, the importance of benchmarks, and applications in engineering such as longitudinal and cross-sectioning levelling.

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7 views20 pages

Lec. 4 - Levelling (1)

Levelling is the process of determining the relative heights and depths of objects on Earth's surface, essential for engineering projects like roads and dams. It involves concepts such as level surfaces, level lines, and various errors that can occur during measurements due to natural causes. The document also discusses methods like ordinary and reciprocal levelling, the importance of benchmarks, and applications in engineering such as longitudinal and cross-sectioning levelling.

Uploaded by

usmantrillionaire
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Levelling

Introduction

• Levelling is the art of finding the relative heights and depths


of the objects on the surface of the earth

• For the purposes of planning, designing and executing the


various engineering projects such as roads, railways, canals,
dams, water supply and sanitary schemes,
Level Surface
• Level surface is always
normal to the direction of
gravity
• Is not a plane
• Eg: Surface of a lake is a
level surface
• A line throughout of one
level surface is called a
“Level Line”
Level line:
A level line is a line lying in a level surface. It is,
therefore, normal to the plumb line at all points.
Horizontal line:
It is a straight line tangential to the level line at
a point. It is also perpendicular to the plumb
line.
Errors in levelling and Compensation
Methods
• Errors in instruments
• Settlement of staff and level
• Mistakes
• Errors due to natural causes
• Wind
• Sun
• Curvature and refraction
Error due to Curvature

Error due to curvature,


True reading = Observed reading – 0.0785
meters
D is the distance between the object
and the instrument and is in
kilometers
Error due to refraction
It is a well-established law of physics that
rays of light passing through layers of
different densities do not remain straight but
are refracted or bent down towards the
denser medium. Consequently, the ray of
light from the staff to the instrument is not
straight, but it follows a curved path,
concave towards the earth as the near the
surface of the earth is denser than the upper
layers of air.
• Error due to Refraction
True reading = Observed reading + 0.0112 meters

In both cases, D is the distance between the object and the instrument and is
in kilometers
Example;
• The observed reading of an object which is 3 Km away is 3.421m.
After counting for both curvature and refraction, calculate the
true reading.
Ordinary levelling
Find out the height difference between the two
points A and B
Reciprocal levelling
• This is used when taking levels between two widely
separated points, for example across a river or a lake
• This is done to avoid the effects of curvature of the earth
and the refraction
Let H be the difference in height between A and B, and +/-
X be the error in the distance AB due to curvature,
refraction, and incorrect adjustment, then

H = a1 – (b1 + x)
H= (a2 + x) – b2

2H = [(a1 – b1) + (a2 – b2)]

H= [(a1 – b1) + (a2 – b2)] / 2


Flying levels

• When only the difference of level between two points are


required, flying levels are taken

• Back-sight and foresight readings are taken without reference


to any bench mark

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rY4XIgSueUs&list=RDQMkZeRvQcLRz0&start_radio=
Invert levels
• Frequently on building sites, the reduced levels of points
above the height of the instrument are required, e.g. the soffit
level of a bridge or under pass, the underside of a canopy,
the level of roofs, etc. of buildings.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xKfb6wOeoc4
BENCHMARKS
• Benchmark is the point laid above or below the datum line with a known
elevation. They are established by local state government agencies or
railways at railway stations, public buildings, at bridges etc. Permanent
benchmarks are useful for future references also.
• Ordnance Bench Mark (OBM)
These are marks made by ordnance surveyors
on permanent structures. They are usually cut
into stone or brick in the shape shown below

Ordnance
Level

The value of O.B.M.s is shown on ordnance


survey maps
• Temporary Benchmark (TBM)
A TBM is a level that is transferred from the OBM or Permanent
BM to a location that is more practical for the work that is
required i.e. nearer.
Then, it is easier to continue the survey from that point after
large gap or on the next day of work.

• Datum
Datum line is the reference line with respect to which the levels
of other station points are fixed.
• TBMs should be located:
• For excavations, the TBM should be located away from the excavation line, but
not be too far away
• Not located on a wall that is going to be demolished during the works
• Not located on a pavement by the site if deliveries are to be made

• Examples of how a TBM can be fixed include:


• A mark on a wall
• A bolt cast into a concrete slab
• An existing feature such as a step
Uses of levelling in Engineering

• In Longitudinal or Profile Levelling


• In Cross Sectioning
• Contour Maps

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