NEB 12 :Digestive system of

Human

By : Miss Rabina BK
DIGESTION can be defined as the catabolic process in which
macro, complex and inabsorable food molecules are changed into
simple and absorable molecules by the process of hydrolysis that
occurs in presence of digestive enzymes. Digestion is mainly of two
types: 1 . Intracellular Digestion: This is the simplest type of digestion
that occurs within the food vacuoles of cells as found in protozoans,
sponges and some coelenterates. 2. Extracellular Digestion: This type
of digestion occurs inside the alimentary canal i.e. outside of cells. It is
characteristics of higher animals. It is complex type of digestion in
which digestive glands secrete digestive juices that are discharged in
alimentary canal containing different types of digestive enzymes.

Digestive System of Human

Digestive system consists of digestive organs and their working
mechanism or physiology of digestion. In human, digestive system
involves alimentary canal and associated digestive glands like liver,
Digestive Organs of Man
Digestive system includes organs concerned with the
ingestion, digestion of food, absorption, assimilation of
digested of food and elimination of undigested food.

The digestive system has three primary functions. First,

mechanically and chemically into an absorable form. Second,
all the digested food are absorbed into ge blood stream.
Third, the undigested food that cannot be absorbed are
collected in the large intestine and finally pass out from the
rectum through the anus. Various activities occur in
alimentary canal are ingestion, propulsion, digestion,
absorption and elimination. The system of those organs which
are associated with the process of digestion is known as
digestive system.
Alimentary Canal
Alimentary canal of man is long and tubular canal having different
diameter at different regions. It begins with mouth and terminates with
anus. It measures about 8-10 m in length and differentiated into
following parts:

Mouth
It is small transverse slit like aperture that lies below the nose. It is
bounded by two soft and fleshy lips, upper lip and lower lip. In the
middle of upper lip there is a depression called philtron. Mouth helps in
ingestion as well as speaking.

Vestibule
It is space in front of buccal cavity that is bounded externally by cheeks
and internally by gums and teeth. It is meant for temporary storage of
foods
Buccal cavity: It is the inner portion of mouth which contains palate,
tongue and teeth.

A Palate: Roof of the buccal cavity is called palate. It separates nasal

chamber from buccal cavity. 2 parts

a) Hard palate -anterior hard and rough part which has many
transverse ridges known as palatine rugae that grip the food during
mastication.

b) Soft Palate – Posterior smooth part, hangs down in the form of

finger like process called Uvula or Velum palatine which moves upward
during swallowing to close off the nasopharynx and prevents food from
entering into nasal cavity.
B TEETH:
Study of teeth: odontology or dentistry.
Ecto-mesodermal in origin.
(Enamel - Ectodermal, Rest-Mesodermal)

Features of mammalian teeth:

Heterodont (different types of teeth),
Thecodont (embedded in theca or socket and
Diphyodont (developed in two sets)
➢ Homodont dentition is found in frog.
Structure of a tooth: 3 parts
i. Crown ii. Neck iii. Root

Crown: Exposed part

Neck: Surrounded by gum
Root: Innermost part and embedded in bone

Enamel: It is the white and shining part of teeth,

hardest substance
(due to fluorine) of vertebrate body, ectodermal in
origin, richest in
calcium salts.
Dentine: It is situated between the Enamel and pulp
cavity, hardest
tissue of human body and produced by odontoblast.
Pulp cavity: The cavity of tooth is called pulp cavity. It is
filled with connective tissue, blood vessels, nerve fibres and
lymphatics,lined by odontoblasts

Cement is present between gums and tooth.

The diet should contain Vitamin D, Calcium and Phosphorus
for healthy teeth.
Four types of teeth are found in
mammals:
Incisors
Canines
Premolars and Molars
Incisors: Chisel shaped with sharp cutting
edges, four in number in
each jaw in human. Has one root. Function ;
cutting soft food
➢ (Tusks of elephant are upper incisors in
upper jaw and are ever
growing teeth. Tusk is used for protection from
enemies, attack on
enemies (not for feeding purpose)
➢ Space between two teeth specially incisors
is called diastema.
Canines: tearing of food, so more developed in carnivores
Has one root.
Premolars and Molars
Called cheek teeth.
Helps in mastication and grinding.
Premolar has 2-cups and molar has 4 or 5 cups.
Third molar teeth is also known as wisdom teeth.

Dental formula
each half of upper jaw / each half of lower jaw *2
➢ Milk teeth in man. -2102/2102 x 2 = 20
➢ Permanent teeth in human – 2123 *2=32
C) Tongue:
Forms floor of the buccal cavity, made up of striated muscles
(voluntary),
The anterior part of tongue is free while, posterior part is connected to
the Hyoid bone,
Connected to the floor of buccal cavity by Frenulum linguae.

Fungiform Papillae- found on the entire surface of tongue but mostly

present at the anterior part of tongue.
Filiform papillae (Conical papillae) - found on the central partand sides of
tongue. They are most numerous. Taste buds are absent.
Circumvallate papillae -Largest, found at the back, least in number
Foliate papillae (vestigial in the human) -Found on the midlateral
surface of tongue. They are functional in rabbit.
Taste areas: There are four taste areas in human:
Salt and Sweet - Tip
Sour-Side
bitter - posterior middle region.
Recently the fifth taste - Umami taste has been discovered which is the taste of
meat

Tongue helps in ingestion, swallowing of food, tasting of food,

cleaning of teeth, manipulation of food as well as in speech.
Pharynx
The pharynx is a muscular, funnel-shaped passage located behind the mouth and
nasal cavity, serving as a common pathway for both food and air. It plays a crucial
role in swallowing and directing food from the mouth to the esophagus. The pharynx
is divided into three main regions:
1.Nasopharynx: Located behind the nasal cavity; it primarily handles air passage and
connects to the middle ear via the Eustachian tube.
2.Oropharynx: Situated behind the oral cavity; it allows passage for both air and
food.
3.Laryngopharynx (Hypopharynx): Located near the larynx and esophagus; it guides
food into the esophagus and prevents entry into the airway.
Esophagus /Food pipe
25cm long
➢ Pharynx leads into esophagus through opening known as gullet.
The esophagus is divided into three regions based on its position in the body:
1.Cervical Esophagus:
1. Located in the neck, behind the trachea.
2. Contains skeletal muscles for voluntary control of swallowing.
2.Thoracic Esophagus:
1. Located in the chest cavity, surrounded by the lungs and heart.
2. Contains a mix of skeletal and smooth muscles for swallowing.
3.Abdominal Esophagus:
1. The shortest portion, located just before it connects to the stomach.
2. Composed entirely of smooth muscle.

It does not contain digestive glands. It conducts the food bolus into the stomach by peristalsis.
Stomach(Gaster)
It is thick, muscular, J shaped, widest part and most distensible portion of alimentary canal.

It consists of 2 curvatures:
Greater curvature (outer convex border)
Lesser curvature (inner concave border)

Human stomach is divided into 4 parts: cardiac, fundus, body and

pyloric part.
i)Cardiac part : it is called so because it is found near to heart. Cardiac sphincter lies in the
opening between the esophagus and stomach.
ii) fundus: dome shaped and usually filled with air. ( not found in frog)
iii) body: middle and main part of stomach
iv) pyloric part: posterior part and Pyloric sphincter is present between stomach and
duodenum. Distal end of stomach is called Pyloric region. Pyloric region divided into pyloric
antrum and pyloric canal.
4 types of cells are present in the epithelium of gastric glands.
1. Mucous (Goblet) cells: Secrete mucous.
2. Oxyntic (Parietal) cells: Secrete HCl and Castle intrinsic factor (protein) is necessary for the
absorption of Vitamin B12 in the intestine.
3. Peptic or Chief (Zymogen) cells: Secrete inactive enzyme pepsinogen and prorenin. They
also secrete little amount of gastric amylase and lip Prorenin is secreted in young mammals
only.
4. Enteroendocrine (Argentaffin) cells: G-cells which secrete Gastrin which stimulates the
gastric gland to produce gastric juice.

Functions of HCl
➢ Activates proenzymes (pepsinogen and prorenin) and change them into active enzymes.
➢ Kills bacteria
➢ Dissolves hard portion of food and makes it soft.
[Food entering the stomach is called Bolus and the food leaving the stomach is called
Chyme.] Chyme is partially digested acidic food that leaves the stomach and enter into the
small intestine
Small intestine
Longest part of alimentary canal to increase food absorption.
Measures about 5.25-6 meters in human

Divided into 3 parts:

i. Duodenum ii. Jejunum iii. Ileum

Duodenum:
"C" shaped in human
➢ 25 cm long, shortest part of small intestine
➢ Here, partially digested food from the stomach (chyme) mixes with bile from the liver
and digestive enzymes from the pancreas. This section is where most chemical digestion
occurs.
➢ Receives hepato-pancreatic duct
Jejunum
2-meter, middle part
(Absent in frog)
It is the primary site for nutrient absorption, especially for carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.

Ileum
It is the longest (3 m) and narrowest part of small intestine.
It absorbs the remaining nutrients, including bile acids, and any leftover vitamins. The ileum
connects to the large intestine through the ileocecal valve, which controls the passage of food
into the colon.
➢ Payer's patches are lymphoid tissue found along the whole length of ileum.
➢ ileocecal valve is present between the small and large intestine

Small intestine is raised into finger like process called villi. The main function of intestinal villi
is to provide large surface area for absorption It is absent in stomach.
LARGE INTESTINE
It is long and measures about 1.5 m in man.
It is divisible into - Caecum, Colon, Rectum and Anal canal.

Caecum
The first section of the large intestine, located just after the ileum (where the small intestine
ends).
Large blind sac, highly developed measure about 6 cm long and 7.5 cm broad. It is a pouch-
like structure that receives undigested food and waste from the small intestine.
Vermiform appendix is an outgrowth of caecum, vestigial in man but functional in
herbivorous.
Colon:
1.3 m
Inverted U shaped
Consists of four parts:
Ascending Colon: Moves waste upward from the cecum.
Transverse Colon: Runs horizontally across the abdomen.
Descending Colon: Moves waste downward toward the rectum.
Sigmoid Colon: A curved section that connects to the rectum, where fecal
matter is stored before being expelled.

Rectum:
15 cm long, distal part
Helps in absorption of water.
temporary Storage chamber for faeces
Peristalsis does not occur in Rectum.
Functions of large intestine
It helps in absorption of water and electrolytes
Digestion of cellulose in herbivores
Synthesis of vitamin- B complex and K
Storage of faces.

Anal canal
Rectum terminates into long anal canal.
Opening of anal canal is called anus.
Anus has an internal anal sphincter having involuntary muscles and
and external anal has sphincter having voluntary muscles.
DIGESTIVE GLANDS
1. Salivary glands
Exocrine glands which are ectodermal in origin, three pairs in man and
secrete saliva
3 type glands
• Parotid gland:
Largest salivary gland, situated near the ears.
Duct of parotid gland is called Stensen’s duct which opens near the
2nd upper molar.
Secretes alpha-amylase (ptyalin) which helps in digestion of starch
(Breaks starch into maltose, isomaltose and dextrin)
• Sub lingual glands: small sized, at the base of tongue , duct is
called Duct of Rivinus.
• submandibular (Sub maxillary) gland or Wharton's gland:
Largest contribution to the volume of saliva (70%), situated at angles of
lower jaw.
Duct is called Wharton’s ducts.
Salivary glands are absent in frog, toad, sea cow and whale

Saliva:
About 1.5 liter per day
Contains 99% water
and remaining are minerals, mucous, mucin, ptyalin, IgA, lysozyme, thiocyanates, enzyme , ,
HCO3, Na+, K+, Cl- etc.

Functions of Salivary glands:

➢ Helps in moistens, lubrication and binding of masticated food into bolus
➢ Saliva contains lysozymes and thiocyanates which kill the bacteria
➢ Provides alkaline buffering
Liver and gall bladder
Liver is the Largest gland, largest internal organ (largest organ is skin)
(Largest endocrine gland is thyroid gland)
➢ situated in the right side of abdominal cavity below diaphragm, developed from
endoderm, mixed (both endocrine and exocrine)
➢ weight about 1.2 to 1.5 kg
➢ About 1/40th of body weight
• human -4 lobes - two major lobes = right lobe, left lobe,
And two minor lobes = quadrate lobe , caudate lobe
and Divided into right and left lobes by falciform ligaments (fold of peritoneum)

❖ Histologically each lobe of liver consists of a large number of hexagonal hepatic lobule
which is structural and functional unit of liver.
➢ Thin peritoneum surrounding the liver and hepatic lobules is
called Glisson's Capsule.
• A lobule consists of specialized epithelial cells called hepatic cells and sinusoids (modified
blood capillaries), Kupffer cells (macrophages of liver)
[Liver is supplied by Hepatic portal vein (80%) and hepatic artery(20%) and drained by hepatic
vein. Hepatic portal vein is formed by the veins from the gastrointestinal tract.]
• Branches from hepatic portal vein, hepatic artery and hepatic duct form portal triad.
Gall bladder is attached with right proper lobe of liver.
• Cystic duct conducts bile to gall bladder.
• It stores bile juice which is secreted by hepatic cells of liver.
Function of liver:
Also known as biological and chemical factory of the body
➢ Synthesis & Secretions of Bile
Plasma proteins: all plasma proteins except gamma globulins (immunoglobulins) are
synthesized by liver
Heparin: natural anticoagulant, , heparin is also secreted by basophils and mast cells
Fibrinogen & prothrombin which help in blood clotting.
Vitamin A
Blood cells formation (hemopoiesis) in embryonic stage
➢ Carbohydrate metabolism
Glycogenesis - The conversion and storage of extra amount of glucose into glycogen from
the digested food is called glycogenesis. The main stored food in the liver is glycogen.
Glycogenolysis- The conversion of glycogen into glucose back when glucose level in blood
falls or the requirement is high is called glycogenolysis.
Gluconeogenesis- At the time of need, liver converts non- carbohydrate compounds (e.g.
Amino acids, fatty acids) into glucose. This conversion is called gluconeogenesis. This is the
neo-formative process of glucose.
Glyconeogenesis: Synthesis of glycogen from lactic acid (from muscles) is called
gluconeogenesis.

Fat metabolism: Stores fat in small amount, in alcoholics storage of fat increases which
reduces the activity of liver
Composition of Bile juice:
Brownish yellowish-green fluid, alkaline in nature. It is composed of water, bile salts, bile
pigment, cholesterol, sodium bicarbonate, glycolate, taurocholate, Lecithin etc.
➢ Bile pigment contains bilirubin (yellowish) and biliverdin(green) which are the
breakdown product of hemoglobin.
➢ Bile salts help in of fats.
Storage:
Vitamins - A, D, E, K and B12
Minerals - Iron, Copper, Zinc, Cobalt, Molybdenum, etc.
Liver is a good source of iron.

Deamination & Detoxification (formation of urea): Liver converts amino acid into
ammonia (deamination) and ammonia into urea(detoxification). Urea is less toxic than
ammonia.
In adults, Kupffer cells destroy worn out or dead RBC and bacteria.
➢ Excretion of bile pigments, cholesterol
Gastric glands
The gastric glands in humans are specialized glands located within
the walls of the stomach. These glands produce gastric juice,
which plays a crucial role in digestion by breaking down food,
aiding in nutrient absorption, and protecting against pathogens.
The stomach lining is divided into different regions, each
containing distinct types of glands:
1.Cardiac glands: Near the entry of the stomach (cardia region)
2.Fundic (or oxyntic) glands: Found in the body and fundus of the
stomach
3.Pyloric glands: Located near the stomach's exit (pylorus)
Each gastric gland contains several types of cells that produce various components of gastric
juice:
1.Mucous Cells ( Goblet cells)
1. Secrete mucus, which coats the stomach lining and protects it from the corrosive effects
of hydrochloric acid (HCl) and digestive enzymes.
2.Parietal Cells (Oxyntic Cells):
1. Secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl), which creates an acidic environment (pH ~1.5-3.5)
necessary for enzyme activation and pathogen destruction.
2. Produce intrinsic factor, essential for the absorption of vitamin B12 in the small intestine.
3.Chief Cells (Zymogenic Cells):
1. Produce the enzyme pepsinogen, an inactive precursor of pepsin. Pepsin is activated by
the acidic environment and breaks down proteins into smaller peptides.
2. Secrete gastric lipase, which helps break down fats.
4.Enteroendocrine Cells (G Cells) or (Argentafffins cells) :
1. Secrete the hormone gastrin, which stimulates the production of gastric juices and
promotes stomach muscle contractions.
5.Stem Cells : Responsible for regenerating and replacing damaged cells within the gastric
glands.
Intestinal glands
Numerous and microscopic , lie in the wall of small intestine
2 types
Brunner's Gland:
Found only in the submucosa of duodenum
➢ Characteristic of mammal
➢ Secretes mucous which is alkaline.

Crypts of Lieberkühn
Secrete digestive enzyme and mucous, mucous is secreted by goblet cells.
Two types of cells are present in this gland - Paneth cells and Enteroendocrine
(argentaffin) cells.
Paneth cells: found mainly in jejunum, secrete lysozyme which Is bactericidal

Enteroendocrine or argentaffin cells 3 types

S cells: secrete hormone secretin which stimulates pancreas to secrets bicarbonate ion
CCK cells: secrete hormone cholecystokinin or CCK which stimulates gall bladder and
pancreas to secretes bile and enzymes respectively.
K cells: secrete hormone GIP (Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide) or ( Gastric
inhibitory peptide)
(intestinal juice or succus entericus.)
PANCREAS
2nd largest gland, endodermal in origin, mixed (99% exocrine and 1% endocrine), compound
or heterocrine gland.
Main large duct which joins with common bile duct is called pancreatic duct or Wirsung duct.
➢ Pancreatic acini or lobules or cells secretes the enzymatic pancreatic juice that contains
pancreatic enzymes like chymotrypsinogen, pancreatic amylase, carboxypeptidase, lipase etc.
and mucus.
➢ Islets of Langerhans ; consists of 4 types of cells
• Alpha cells : produce glucagon hormone , which increases sugar level in blood, its deficiency
causes hypoglycemia
• Beta cells: produce insulin hormone, which converts excess glucose into glycogen, deficiency
causes diabetes mellitus or hyperglycemia
• Delta cells (D cells): secretes somatostatin which regulates the balance of Glucagon and
insulin. ( somatostatin inhibits the release of growth hormone from pituitary gland and also
act as neurotransmitter in CNS)
• Pancreatic polypeptide cells( PP cells): secrete pancreatic polypeptide hormone which
inhibits the release of pancreatic juice.
PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION
Digestion is the process by which human break down food into component molecules that are
absorbed and utilized by the body to build structures and promote vital function.
Digestion is both mechanical & chemical process
Mechanical digestion
Mechanical digestion is the physical process of breaking down food into smaller particles
without altering its chemical composition. This type of digestion involves the mechanical
actions of chewing, grinding, and mixing... starts at mouth & continues up to stomach.
Chemical digestion
several different enzymes breaks down macromolecules into smaller molecules.... starts at
mouth & continues up to ileum.
➢ There are mainly six food components, these are carbohydrates, protein, fats, nucleic acid,
water and vitamin and minerals. Out of these water, vitamin and minerals directly absorbed
through the wall of alimentary canal but remaining nutrients are digested first then are
absorbed.
Carbohydrates digestion
➢ Starts in buccal cavity
During digestion of carbohydrates glycosidic bonds are hydrolyzed with the
help of carbohydrates splitting enzymes called glycosidases or carbohydrolases.
1. Digestion in Buccal Cavity: Digestion of carbohydrates begins in buccal
cavity where both mechanical and chemical break down of food takes place.
Mechanical break down of food is the mastication by teeth, while mastication
food is mixed with saliva to form a semi solid form of food called bolus. Saliva
contains mucin and an enzyme ptyalin. Mucin lubricates the food where as
ptyalin acts on starch converting it into maltose, isomaltose and dextrins. It
acts on pH 6.8.
Ptyalin
Ptyalin
Starch Maltose + Isomaltose + Dextrins
2. In Stomach: As the gastric juice has no glycosidases thus there is no chemical digestion
of carbohydrates in the stomach. But the salivary amylase continuously digests the starch while
passing through the oesophagus. Action of saliva is stopped by HCI found in gastric juice.

3. In Small Intestine: In small intestine, chyme is mixed with bile, pancreatic juice and
intestinal juice. Due to the action of pancreatic amylase, it converts remaining starch into
maltose, isomaltose and dextrin.
Pancreatic amylase
Starch Maltose + Isomaltose + Dextrins

Intestinal juice contains a number of carbohydrolases like maltase, isomaltase, dextrinase,

sucrase and lactase whose actions are given as
below:
Maltose Maltase Glucose + Glucose

Isomaltose Isomaltase Glucose + Glucose

Dextrines Dextrinase Glucose

Sucrose Sucrase Glucose + Fructose

Lactose Lactase Glucose + Galactose

The end products of digestion of carbohydrates are glucose (80%), fructose

(10%) and galactose (10%).
Digestion of Proteins
The proteins digesting enzymes are called proteases or peptidases which are
of two types- endopeptidases and exopeptidases. Endopeptidases break
inner peptide bonds eg. tryspin, pepsin etc. Exopeptidases hydrolyse terminal
peptide bonds eg. Carboxypeptidase, aminopeptidase etc.

1. Digestion in buccal cavity: There is no digestion of proteins in buccal

cavity, as salvia has no proteases.

2. Digestion in stomach: Digestion of proteins starts in stomach. Gastric juice contains

HCI (0.3%) and two proenzymes, prorennin and pepsinogen. HCI makes the medium of
digestion acidic (PH 1.2 to 1.8), inhibits the action of salivary amylase, transforms the
inactive pepsinogen and prorennin into active forms pepsin and rennin respectively. Pepsin
converts the proteins into peptones and proteoses. Rennin hydrolyses milk casein into
paracasein that precipitates as calcium paracaseinate in presence of Ca, this process is called
curdling of milk.
Therefore rennin is known as milk curdling enzyme.
Calcium paracaseinate is acted by pepsin to change into peptones and proteoses.

Pepsinogen HCI Pepsin

Prorennin HCI Rennin

Protein Pepsin Peptones + Proteoses

Casein rennin Paracasein ca++ Calcium paracaseinate (curd)

Calcium paracaseinate (curd) pepsin Peptones + Proteoses

3. In small intestine: In small intestine chyme is mixed with bile; pancreatic
juice and intestinal juice. Bile has no protein digesting enzymes so it only
provides alkaline medium for the action of pancreatic juice and intestinal juice.
Pancreatic juice contains three pro-enzymes, trypsinogen, chymotrysinogen
and procarboxypeptidase. Inactive trypsinogen is changed into active trypsin
with the help of enterokinase present in intestinal juice, trypsin hydrolyses
peptones and proteoses into polypeptides.

Trypsinogen enterokinase Trypsin

Peptones and Proteoses Trypsin Polypeptides

Chymotrypsinogen and procarboxypeptide are activated by trypsin

Chymotrypsinogen Trypsin Chymotrypsin

Procarboxypeptidease Trypsin Carboxypeptidase

Chymotrypsin hydrolyses peptones and protoses into polypeptides

Peptones and proteoses Chymotrypsin Polypeptides

Carboxypeptidase seperates individual amino acids and smaller peptides (Dipeptides)

Polypeptides Carboxypeptidase Smaller peptides + Aminoacids

Intestinal juice contains enterokinase, aminopeptidase and dipeptidase.

Aminopeptidase seperates individual aminoacids

polypeptides Aminopeptidase Aminoacids

Dipeptidase converts dipeptides into amino acids.

Dipeptides Dipeptidase Amino acids

Thus, end products of proteins digestion are amino acids.

PROTEINS
Pepsin
(Gastric Juice)
Proteoses, Peptones, Polypeptides

(Pancreatic Juice) Trypsin, Chymotrypsin Carboxypolypeptidase

Polypeptides + Amino Acids

(Intestinal Juice) Aminopeptidase Dipeptidase

Amino acids
Digestion of Fats
The main constituents of dietary fats are triglycerides which are formed by
esterification of glycerol with three molecules of fatty acids. The fats digesting
enzymes are called esterases among which lipase is the most common
enzyme. The digestion of fats begins in stomach and completed in intestine.

1. In buccal cavity: As salvia does not contain fats digesting enzymes so no digestion of fats
occurs in buccal cavity.

2. In Stomach: Gastric juice contains small amount of weak gastric lipase but its action is
inhibited by strong acidic medium in stomach. However small amounts of hydrolysis of fats
occurs in stomach by gastric lipase.

3. In Small Intestine: In small intestine fats are acted by bile, pancreatic lipase and intestinal
lipase. Bile emulsifies fats by detergent actions of bile salts, lecithin and monoglycerides. Due
to emulsification larger fat globules.
are broken down into small droplets to increase the area of action of lipase
enzyme. Pancreatic lipase is the main fat digesting enzyme that acts on
emulsified fats converting them into fatty acids, glycerol, diglycerides and
monoglycerides.

Emulsified fats Pancreatic lipase Fatty acids + glycerol + Diglycerides +

Monoglycerides

Intestinal lipase hydrolyses some triglycerides, diglycerides and

monoglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol.

During digestion of fats only 50% fats are completely digested giving fatty
acids and glycerol remaining 50% are diglycerides and monoglycerides.
Triglyceride
Lipase
1, 2-Diglyceride + Fatty Acid
Lipase
2-Monoglyceride + Fatty Acid
Isomerisation
1-Monoglyceride Glycerol + Fatty Acid
Digestion of Nucleic Acid
Nucleic acids present in the food also required digestion. The break down of
nucleic acids takes place in small intestine with the help of nucleases
secreted by pancreas and intestinal glands. Pancreatic juice contains two
enzymes ribonuclease (RNAse) and deoxyribonuclease (DNAse) which
hydrolyse the RNA and DNA respectively into nucleotides. Intestinal glands
secret two enzymes nucleotidase and nucleosidase Nucleotidase digests the
nucleotides into nucleosides and phosphoric acid. The nucleosides are finally
digested by nucleosidase into pentose sugar and nitrogen bases.

Nucleic acid (RNA & DNA) RNase & DNase Nucleotides

Nucleotides Nucleotidase Phosphoric acid

Nucleosides Nucleosidase Pentose sugar + Nitrogen base (Purines &

pyrimidines)
Physiology of digestion in Man ( in combined way)
carbohydrates, protein, fats, nucleic acid ( digestion)
1. Digestion in buccal cavity
Ingestion occur
Food are cut into small pieces by incisor teeth, teared by canine teeth and chewed by
premolar and molar teeth.
Food are tested by taste bud
Saliva contain mucin and ptyalin

Ptyalin
Starch Maltose + Isomaltose + Dextrins

Bolus into oesophagus to stomach bb peristalsis

2. Digestion in stomach
Acted by gastric juice produced by gastric gland
Contain small amount of HCL ( soften food & kill bacteria), two proenzymes i.e pepsinogen
and prorenin

Pepsinogen HCI Pepsin

Prorennin HCI Rennin

Protein Pepsin Peptones + Proteoses

Casein rennin Paracasein ca++ Calcium paracaseinate (curd)

Calcium paracaseinate (curd) pepsin Peptones + Proteoses

Partly digested food called chyme…… passed gradually into duodenum.

3. Digestion in small intestine
In duodenum chyme is acted by two juice bile from liver and pancreatic juice from
pancreas
Bile neutralizes acidity of chyme & emulsifies the fats
Pancreatic juice also alkaline …. Contain 3 enzymes i.e trypsinogen, pancreatic amylase and
lipase
Trypsinogen enterokinase Trypsin

Peptones and Proteoses Trypsin Polypeptides

Pancreatic amylase
Starch Maltose + Isomaltose + Dextrins

Emulsified fats lipase Fatty acids + Glycerol

In the ileum , acted by intestinal juice secreted by intestinal gland

Maltose Maltase Glucose + Glucose

Isomaltose Isomaltase Glucose + Glucose

Dextrines Dextrinase Glucose

Sucrose Sucrase Glucose + Fructose

Lactose Lactase Glucose + Galactose

The end products of digestion of carbohydrates are glucose (80%), fructose

(10%) and galactose (10%).
Remaning Emulsified fats lipase Fatty acids + Glycerol

Polypeptides peptidase Amino acids

As a result of Digestion, carbohydrates are changed into glucose, fructose and galacgtose
Proteins into amino acids , Fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
Product of digestions are absorbed in the form of chyle in the wall of SI which has villi

Indigestible food is passed down rectum and colon where water is absorbed and faecal
materials are solidified , passed out through anus .
Absorption of Digested Foods
Assimilation
The distribution and utilization of absorbed nutrients is called
assimilation
Assimilation is the biological process by which nutrients absorbed into
the bloodstream are taken up by cells and tissues, where they are
utilized for energy, growth, repair, and other metabolic functions. It
occurs after absorption (the passage of nutrients from the digestive
tract into the blood or lymph) and involves several key steps:
Transport to Cells
Cellular Uptake
Utilization

•Absorption: Movement of nutrients from the gut into the blood.

•Assimilation: Integration of those nutrients into cellular structures
and metabolic processes.
Disorders of digestive system
1. Protein- energy malnutrition (PEM) : prolonged low intake of nutrition …… common
in children …. Deficiency of protein and calories…marasmus and kwashiorkor
2. Indigestion : dyspepsia….. feeling of discomfort in the upper belly or while eating ….
Caused by ulcer, cancer, abnormality of pancreas and bile
3. Constipation : Hard and dry stool ….. Caused by less fiber in diet, medication,
dehydration
4. Diarrhea : passage of 3 or more loose or liquid per day…. Caused by variety of
bacterial, viral and parasitic organism
5. Vomiting : Emesis