Modern Physics

Chapter 2 Waves and Particles

2.1 Electromagnetic Waves
Coupled electric and magnetic oscillations that move with the speed
of light and exhibit typical wave behavior.
E, Electrical field

Direction of wave

H, magnetic field
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2.2 BLACKBODY RADIATION

Only the quantum theory of light can explain its origin

Spectral energy density, u(v)dv

The Ultraviolet Catastrophe( 紫外崩潰 )
Density of standing waves in cavity 1800 K
8πv2dv
G(v)dv =
c3

Classical average energy 1200 K

per standing wave
ē = kT k: Boltzmann’s 0 2 4 6 8
constant
Frequency, [1014
A degree of freedom is a mode of energy possession. Hz]
Thus a monatomic ideal gas molecule has three degrees of freedom,
corresponding to kinetic energy of motion in three independent directions,
for an average total energy of 3kT/2.
8πv2dv The Ultraviolet
Rayleigh-Jean formula: u(v)dv = є G(v)dv = kT Catastrophe
c3
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Density of standing waves in

cavity
λ5 = 2L/5

λ4= L/2

λ3 = 2L/3
λ
λ2 = L λy
v
λ1 = 2L/1
L λx v dv
λx = 2L/nx, vx = c/λx = nxc/2L, nx= 1,2,3,4,5, • • •, vx = nx ∆v , ∆v = c/2L
Two dimensions
v ⇨ v + dv, G(v) ∆v = 2 • [(2πv dv)/4]/∆v2 /L2 Density of standing
v ⇨ v + dv, G(v) dv = 2 • (2πv dv/4)/(c2/4L2)/L2 = 4πv dv/c2waves in plane
v ⇨ v + dv G(v) ∆v = 2 • [(4πv2 dv)/8]/∆v3 /L3 Three dimensions
8πv dv
2
Density of standing
v ⇨ v + dv G(v) dv = 2 • [(4πv dv)/8]/(c /8L )/L =
2 3 3 3
waves in cavity
c3
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Density of States Function

A two-dimensional array of allowed quantum states in k space. (b) The positive

one-eight of the spherical k space.
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2-D The area Ak of a 3-D ky

quantum state dk
The volume Vk of k
a quantum state kx
ky
kz
k
Spin ±1/2

kx dk
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Boltzmann’s Distribution ∝ exp(-

αE) ⇨ p(E) = A exp(-αE)

Expected value: ē = kT = ∫E p(E)dE/∫ p(E)dE 1/kT

p(E)

1 −α-1 exp(−αE) E
= A/α 2
0 α-2 exp(−αE)
E
A/α p(E) kT

Expected value: kT = ∫E p(E)dE/∫ p(E)dE

= (Aα-2)/(Aα-1) = α-1 ⇨ α= 1/kT

A = 1/kT ⇨ p(E) = (1/kT)exp(-E/kT)

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Spectral energy density, u(v)dv

1/e
v ⇨ 0,
ē ⇨ kT
1800 K v ⇨ ∞, E p(E)
ē ⇨0 kT E ∆E

E p(E)
1200 K

kT ∆E
0 2 4 6 8 E
Frequency, [1014
Hz] E p(E)
∆E

kT

ē=
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v ⇨ 0, ē ⇨ kT ∆E ⇨ 0
v ∝ ∆E ⇨ ∆E =
v ⇨ ∞, ē ⇨ 0 ∆E ⇨ h·v
∞

(1 - x)-1= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + ····· ………..(A)

d(A)/dx – (A) = (B) = (1 – x)-2 – (1 – x)-1 = x/(1 – x)2

∆E2/kT · x(1 – x)-2 ∆E ∆E

ē= = = =
∆E/kT · (1 – x) -1 -1
(x – 1) e∆E/kT – 1
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1/e

v ⇨ 0, ē ⇨ kT , ∆E ⇨ 0 v ∝ ∆E ⇨ ∆E =

E p(E)
h·v
v ⇨ ∞, ē ⇨ 0, ∆E ⇨ ∞ h: Plank’s constant
kT ∆E E

∆E hv ∆E = hv « kT, ē ⇨ kT
ē= =

E p(E)
e∆E/kT – 1 ehv/kT – 1 ∆E = hv » kT, ē ⇨ 0
kT ∆E E

E p(E)
∆E

kT E

measured
h = 6.63 ×10-34 J·s

h = 6.63 ×10-34 J·s u(λ) 1595 K

h = 6.626 ×10-34 J·s

λ
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Photoelectric Effect
E = hν = Kmax + hν0
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Photoelectric Effect
E = hν = Kmax + hν0

Photoelectric Effect:
E = hν = Kmax + hν0 = Maximal electron’s energy + Work function
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Photoelectric Effect
E = hν = Kmax + hν0

Eg. An UV light of wavelength 350nm and intensity 1W/m2 is incident at

the potassium surface.
(a) Find the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons.
(b) If 0.5 percentage of the incident photons produce photoelectrons, how
many photoelectrons/sec are emitted if potassium surface has an area
of 1cm2?

(Sol.) (a) Work function of K = 2.2eV = hν0. E = 1.24×10-6/350×10-9 = 3.5eV,

Kmax = E - hν0 = 3.5 - 2.2 = 1.3eV
(b) 3.5eV = 3.5×1.602×10-19 = 5.68×10-19J, np = = 1.76×1014photons/sec
1.76×1014 × 0.5% = 8.8 × 1011
photoelectrons/sec
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X-Ray

The shortest wavelength of X-ray due to electron bombard:

λmin= 1.24×10-6/V, where V is the accelerating voltage.

Eg. Find the shortest wavelength present in the radiation from an X-ray
machine whose accelerating potential is 50000V.

(Sol.) λmin = 1.24 × 10-6/50000 = 2.5 × 10-11m = 0.025nm

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50kV W target
W, 35 kV
40kV
Intensity

30kV

20kV Mo, 35kV

0 20 40 60 80 100 20 40 60 80 100
Wavelength, pm Wavelength, pm

λmin = hc/qV = 1.24×10-6/V [V·m]

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Bragg’s Reflection 2dsinθ = nλ and

Compton Effect △λ= h(1- cosφ)/m0c

Bragg’s Reflection:
When 2dsinθ=nλ occurs, it forms a constructive interference.
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Eg. The distance between adjacent atomic planes in calcite is

0.3nm. What is the smallest angle between these planes and
an incident beam of 30pm X-rays at which scattered X-rays
can be detected?
(Sol.)
d=0.3×10-9, λ=30×10-12, 2dsinθ=nλ=λ sinθ=0.05, θ=2.86°

Eg. Blue light of wavelength 300nm and intensity 0.5W/m2 is directed at a

material with work function of 2.7eV. (1) Find the maximum kinetic energy of
photoelectrons. (2) If the quantum efficiency is 1%, how many photoelectrons
are emitted per second if the semiconductor surface has an area of 2cm2? [ 台
大電研 ]
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Compton Effect:

動量守恆
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Compton Effect:

……
(1)
And { E = EK + m0c2 = (m02c4 + p2c2)1/2 }2 EK = hv – hv’ for ve << c
(pc)2 = EK2 + 2m0c2 EK = (hv – hv’)2 + 2m0c2 (hv – hv’)
= (hv)2 + (hv’)2 – 2(hv)(hv’) + 2m0c2 (hv – hv’)…… (2)
From eqs. (1), (2) { 2m0c2 (hv – hv’) = 2(hv)(hv’)(1 – cos ϕ) } /(ch)2
(m0c/h)(ν/c -ν’/c) = (ν/c)(ν’/c)(1 - cosϕ)
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Compton Effect:
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Compton Effect:

λ’ λ’
λ’
hv
φ

λ’ λ
λ λ’
λ’ λ’
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Compton Effect:

Compton wavelength: λc= h/moc, and the Compton wavelength of

the electron is λc,electron=2.426×10-12m

Eg. A beam of X-rays is scattered by a target. At 45° from the beam

direction the scattered X-rays have a wavelength of 2.2pm. What is the
wavelength of the X-rays in the direct beam?

(Sol.) φ = 45°, λ’ = 2.2pm, h/m0c = 2.426×10-12,

λ’ − λ= h(1- cosφ)/m0c λ= 1.489pm
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Pair Production
Energy into matter
photon hv
electron me0 (-q)
mp0 = me0
positron mp0 (+q)
nucleus

photon hv > Photon hv > mp0 c2 + me0c2 = 1.022 MeV

λ < 1.2 pm γ - ray
B
e+ + e − → γ + γ
photon hv
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Photon Absorption C
1

Relative probability
hv Atom
Photoelectric
effect
0
hv hv’
Compact 0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100
scattering Photon energy, MeV
Lead
1

Relative probability
Pair hv
production

0
0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100
Photon energy, MeV
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Photon, Gravity, and Black Holes

Gravitational red shift: The frequency of a photon
emitted from the surface of a star
decreases as it moves away from
the star. And its total energy
becomes
U(r) = - GMm/r E = hν - GMm/R
Potential energy =hν- GM(hν/c2)/R = hν’

m = p/v = h/(λv) =
△ν/ν = (ν-ν’)/ν = (1-ν’/ν) = h/(vc/v) = hv/c2

1. For most stars, M/R is small, △ν/ν is not apparent.

2. For white dwarf stars, M/R is large, △ν/ν is measurable.
3. For black holes, if GM/Rc2≧0.5, we can obtain Schwarzschild
radius Rs=2GM/c2, and prove that no photon can leave the black
holes.