UNIT 5

TABUL ATION
• Tabulation is a method of presenting numeric data in rows and columns in a logical and
systematic manner to aid comparison and statistical analysis. It allows for easier
comparison by putting relevant data closer together, and it aids in statistical analysis and
interpretation.
• Tabulation, in other terms, is the process of arranging organised data into a tabular format.
• Depending on the nature of the classification, it might be complicated, double, or simple.
• The goal of a tabulation chart/data is to present a significant amount of complicated data in
a systematic way that allows readers to derive logical conclusions and interpretations from
it.

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Rules of Tabulation:
TABUL ATION
• There are a few general guidelines that must be observed while designing tables, which are listed below:
• All of the tables should be self-explanatory, while footnotes are a part of tables, they should not be required to
clarify the meaning of the data in a table
• If the amount of data is significant, it is preferable to divide it into numerous tables rather than a single one
• Each table design, on the other hand, should be comprehensive in and of itself, as well as serving the analysis’s
aim
• To show data in a quick and simple way, the number of rows and columns should be limited to a minimum
• Wherever necessary, data should be approximated before tabulating
• Stubs and titles should be self-explanatory and should not require the use of footnotes in order to be understood
• If specific circumstances of acquired data cannot be tabulated under any stub or caption, they should be put in a
separate table with the heading miscellaneous
• When generating a table, the quantity and quality of data should never be compromised
Ungrouped Data
TABUL ATION
• This form of representation becomes rather hectic as the number of observations grows, and the
computations based on it can become quite difficult. The depiction of data in tabular form is more
convenient because statistics is about presenting data in an orderly fashion.
• Considering another situation : In a quiz, the marks obtained by 20 students out of 30 are given as:
• 12,15,15,29,30,21,30,30,15,17,19,15,20,20,16,21,23,24,23,21
Grouped Data
• Let us consider another situation in which we have scores of 200 students instead of 20 students out
of 25 in their mathematics unit test but It will be a hectic task of tallying the scores of all the 200
students. Furthermore, the table's length will rise, and it will be difficult to comprehend. The
concept of a grouped frequency distribution table comes in handy in these situations since it takes
into account groups of data in the form of class intervals while tallying the frequency of
observations, such as which observation corresponds to which class interval.
T Y P E S O F S TAT I S T I C A L C H A R T S A N D D I A G R A M S A N D
THEIR USES

• Line Graphs
• A line chart graphically displays data that changes continuously over time. Each line graph
consists of points that connect data to show a trend (continuous change). Line graphs have
an x-axis and a y-axis. In the most cases, time is distributed on the horizontal axis.
• uses of line graphs:
• When you want to show trends. For example, how house prices have increased over time.
• When you want to make predictions based on a data history over time.
• When comparing two or more diff erent variables, situations, and information over a given
period of time.

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T Y P E S O F S TAT I S T I C A L C H A R T S A N D D I A G R A M S A N D
THEIR USES

Example:
The following line graph shows annual sales of a particular business
company for the period of six consecutive years:

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 T Y P E S O F S TAT I S T I C A L C H A R T S A N D D I A G R A M S A N D
THEIR USES

• Bar Charts
• Bar charts represent categorical data with rectangular bars (to understand what is
categorical data see categorical data examples). Bar graphs are among the most popular
types of graphs and charts in economics, statistics, marketing, and visualization in digital
customer experience. They are commonly used to compare several categories of data.
• Each rectangular bar has length and height proportional to the values that they represent.
• Bar Charts Uses:
• When you want to display data that are grouped into nominal or ordinal categories.
• To compare data among different categories.
• Bar charts can also show large data changes over time.
• Bar charts are ideal for visualizing the distribution of data when we have more than three
categories.

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 T Y P E S O F S TAT I S T I C A L C H A R T S A N D D I A G R A M S A N D
THEIR USES

• Example:
• The bar chart below represents the total sum of sales for Product A and Product B over
three years.

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 T Y P E S O F S TAT I S T I C A L C H A R T S A N D D I A G R A M S A N D
THEIR USES

Pie Charts
• When it comes to statistical types of graphs and charts, the pie chart (or the circle chart) has a
crucial place and meaning. It displays data and statistics in an easy-to-understand ‘pie-slice’ format
and illustrates numerical proportion.
• Each pie slice is relative to the size of a particular category in a given group as a whole. To say it in
another way, the pie chart brakes down a group into smaller pieces. It shows part-whole
relationships.
Pie Chart Uses:
• When you want to create and represent the composition of something.
• It is very useful for displaying nominal or ordinal categories of data.
• To show percentage or proportional data.
• When comparing areas of growth within a business such as profit.
• Pie charts work best for displaying data for 3 to 7 categories.

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 T Y P E S O F S TAT I S T I C A L C H A R T S A N D D I A G R A M S A N D
THEIR USES

Example:
• The pie chart below represents the proportion of types of transportation used by 1000
students to go to their school.

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 T Y P E S O F S TAT I S T I C A L C H A R T S A N D D I A G R A M S A N D
THEIR USES
• Histogram
• A histogram shows continuous data in ordered rectangular columns (to understand what is
continuous data see our post discrete vs continuous data ). Usually, there are no gaps between
the columns.
• The histogram displays a frequency distribution (shape) of a data set. At fi rst glance,
histograms look alike to bar graphs. However, there is a key diff erence between them. Bar
Chart represents categorical data and histogram represent continuous data.

• Histogram Uses:
• When the data is continuous.
• When you want to represent the shape of the data’s distribution.
• When you want to see whether the outputs of two or more processes are different.
• To summarize large data sets graphically.
• To communicate the data distribution quickly to others.

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 T Y P E S O F S TAT I S T I C A L C H A R T S A N D D I A G R A M S A N D
THEIR USES
• Example:
• The histogram below represents per capita income for fi ve age groups.

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 T Y P E S O F S TAT I S T I C A L C H A R T S A N D D I A G R A M S A N D
THEIR USES

Area Charts
• Area charts show the change in one or several quantities over time. They are very similar to
the line chart. However, the area between axis and line are usually filled with colors.
• Despite line and area charts support the same type of analysis, they cannot be always used
interchangeably. Line charts are often used to represent multiple data sets. Area charts
cannot show multiple data sets clearly because area charts show a filled area below the line.
Area Chart Uses:
• When you want to show trends, rather than express specific values.
• To show a simple comparison of the trend of data sets over the period of time.
• To display the magnitude of a change.
• To compare a small number of categories.

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 T Y P E S O F S TAT I S T I C A L C H A R T S A N D D I A G R A M S A N D
THEIR USES
• Example:
• The area chart below shows quarterly sales for product categories A and B for the last year.

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 P R E S E N TAT I O N T I T L E

BIBLIOGRAPHY
• A bibliography is a list of all the sources you consulted while writing your paper. Every
book, article, and even video you used to gather information for your paper needs to be
cited in your bibliography so your instructor (and any others reading your work) can trace
the facts, statistics, and insights back to their original sources.
• A bibliography is the list of sources a work’s author used to create the work. It accompanies
just about every type of academic writing, like essays, research papers, and reports. You
might also find a brief, less formal bibliography at the end of a journalistic piece,
presentation, or video when the author feels it’s necessary to cite their sources.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY
• APA format is the official style of the American Psychological Association
(APA)
• Sapolsky, R. M. (2017). Behave: The biology of humans at our
best and worst. Penguin Books.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY
• The MLA citation style is the method established by the
Modern Language Association for documenting sources used in
a research paper.
• Card, Claudia. The Atrocity Paradigm: A Theory of Evil.
Oxford UP, 2005.
• APA (American Psychological Association) is used by Education,
Psychology, and Sciences. MLA (Modern Language Association)
style is used by the Humanities.

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 P R E S E N TAT I O N T I T L E

ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN
RESEARCH
Computers in Research
• The computers are indispensable throughout the research process. The role of computer
becomes more important
• when the research is on a large sample. Data can be stored in computers for immediate use
or can be stored in
• auxiliary memories like fl oppy discs, compact discs, universal serial buses (pen drives) or
memory cards, so that
• the same can be retrieved later. The computers assist the researcher throughout diff erent
phases of research
• process.

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 P R E S E N TAT I O N T I T L E

ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN
RESEARCH
• Role of Computer in Conceptual Phase
• The conceptual phase consists of formulation of research problem, review of
literature, theoretical frame work and formulation of hypothesis.
• Role of Computers in Literature Review: Computers help for searching the
literatures (for review of literature) and bibliographic references stored in the
electronic databases of the world wide webs. It can thus be used for storing
relevant published articles to be retrieved whenever needed. This has the
advantage over searching the literatures in the form of books, journals and other
newsletters at the libraries which consume considerable amount of time and
eff ort.

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 ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN
RESEARCH
Role of Computers in Design and planning phase Design and planning phase consist of research design,
population, research variables, sampling plan, reviewing research plan and pilot study.
Role of Computers for Sample Size Calculation: Several software’s are available to calculate the
sample size required for a proposed study. NCSS-PASS-GESS is such software. The standard deviation
of the data from the pilot study is required for the sample size calculation.
Role of Computers in Empirical phase Empirical phase consist of collecting and preparing the data for
analysis.
Data Storage: The data obtained from the subjects are stored in computers as word files or excel spread
sheets. This has the advantage of making necessary corrections or editing the whole layout of the
tables if needed, which is impossible or time-consuming in case of writing in papers. Thus, computers
help in data entry, data editing, data management including follow up actions etc. Computers also
allow for greater flexibility in recording the data while they are collected as well as greater ease during
the analysis of these data

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 ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN
RESEARCH
Role of Computers in Data Analysis
• This phase consist of statistical analysis of the data and interpretation of
results.
• Data Analysis: Much software is now available to perform the
‘mathematical part ‘of the research process i.e. the calculations using
various statistical methods. Software’s like SPSS, NCSS-PASS, STATA and
Sysat are some of the widely used. They can be like calculating the sample
size for a proposed study, hypothesis testing and calculating the power of
the study. Familiarity with any one package will suffi ce to carry out the
most intricate statistical analyses. Computers are useful not only for
statistical analyses, but also to monitor the accuracy and completeness of
the data as they are collected

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 ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN
RESEARCH
• Research publishing: The research article is typed in word format and
converted to portable data format (PDF) and stored and/or published in the
World Wide Web.
• Use of Computer in Data Processing and Tabulation Research involves large
amounts of data, which can be handled manually or by computers.
Computers provide the best alternative for more than one reason. Besides
its capacity to process large amounts of data, it also analyses data with
the help of a number of statistical procedures. Computers carry out
processing and analysis of data flawlessly and with a very high speed. The
statistical analysis that took months earlier takes now a few seconds or
few minutes.

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 ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN
RESEARCH
• Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) is one such package that is
often used by researchers for data processing and analysis. It is preferred
choice for social work research analysis due to its easy to use interface
and comprehensive range of data manipulation and analytical tools.
Basic Steps in Data Processing and Analysis
There are four basic steps involved in data processingand analysis using
SPSS. They are:
• 1) Entering of data into SPSS,
• 2) Selection of a procedure from the Menus,
• 3) Selection of variables for analysis, and
• 4) Examination of the outputs.
• You can enter your data directly into2 3SPSS DataEditor. Before data
analysis, it is advised that youshould have a
 ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN
RESEARCH
• You can enter your data directly into SPSS Data Editor. Before data
analysis, it is advised that you should have a detailed plan of analysis so
that you are clear as to what analysis is to be performed. Select the
procedure to work on
• the data. All the variables are listed each time a dialog box is opened.
Select variables on which you wish to apply a
• Statistical procedure. After completing the selection, execute the SPSS
command. Most of the commands are directly executed by clicking ‘O.K’.
on the dialog box. The processor in the computer will execute the
procedures and display the results on the monitor as ‘output file’.

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 P R E S E N TAT I O N T I T L E

SPSS
• SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences), also known as IBM SPSS Statistics, is a
software package used for the analysis of statistical data.
• Although the name of SPSS reflects its original use in the field of social sciences, its use has since
expanded into other data markets. SPSS is commonly used in healthcare, marketing and education
research.
• SPSS provides data analysis for descriptive and bivariate statistics, numeral outcome predictions and
predictions for identifying groups.

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 P R E S E N TAT I O N T I T L E

RESEARCH ETHICS
• objectives in research ethics
1. The first and broadest objective is to protect human participants.
2. The second objective is to ensure that research is conducted in a way that serves interests of
individuals, groups and/or society as a whole.
3. Finally, the third objective is to examine specific research activities and projects for their ethical
soundness, looking at issues such as the management of risk, protection of confidentiality and the
process of informed consent.

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 P R E S E N TAT I O N T I T L E

RESEARCH ETHICS
• Honesty: Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly report data, results, methods and
procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. Do not deceive
colleagues, granting agencies, or the public.
• Objectivity: Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review,
personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research where objectivity is
expected or required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-deception. Disclose personal or financial interests
that may affect research.
• Carefulness: Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work and
the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities, such as data collection, research
design, and correspondence with agencies or journals.
• Openness: Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas

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 RESEARCH ETHICS
• Respect for Intellectual Property: Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property.
Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give credit where credit is due.
Give proper acknowledgement or credit for all contributions to research. Never plagiarize.
• Confidentiality: Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for
publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.
• Respect for colleagues: Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly. 11. Social Responsibility: Strive
to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public education, and
advocacy.
• Non-Discrimination: Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race,
ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their scientific competence and integrity. 13.
Competence: Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong
education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole.
• Legality: Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.

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