THERMODYNAMICS I

1
CHAPTER

Basic
Concepts of
Thermodynamics
Learning Objectives
 Acquainting the students to the basic
concepts , terms and definitions.
 Therefore, being able to understand these

concepts is essential for good understanding

of the following chapters
 Get familiarize your self with these concepts

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 Applications of
Thermodynamics

The human body

Air-conditioning Airplanes
systems

Car radiators Power plants Refrigeration systems

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 Applications of
Thermodynamics

4
Applications of this course

Power plant
(or Heat engine)

Refrigerator
(or Air-conditioner)
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Applications of this course
Example Heat transfer to
cooling water or
atmospheric air

Fuel + Air Movement of car

Heat engine
e.g. Car engine or
(or power plant)
Burn to produce Electrical energy
HEAT WORK

Products of combustion
Exhaust

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1.1 Thermodynamics and Energy
Definition
Science that deals with heat and work and the changes they can produce.
e.g. change of temperature (T), pressure (P) etc.

Basis is experimental observations written down as laws. e.g.

1st law of thermodynamics:
Energy can change from one form to another but the total amount remains constant.
2nd law of thermodynamics:
Energy has quality (more or less useful) and quantity. Real changes occur only in a
direction of decreasing quality of energy.

Microscopic and Macroscopic Approach

To study the behavior (changes in T & P) of substances we have 2 approaches
Microscopic:
Study behavior of each atom & molecule (Quantum mechanics)
Macroscopic:
Study average behavior of many atom & molecule
a) Find the average behavior based on probability theory (Statistical thermodynamics)
b) Find the average behavior using instruments (Classical thermodynamics, ME203)
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 Classical Thermodynamics

We study the average behavior of many atoms/molecules using instruments.

e.g. average pressure (using a pressure measuring device)
average temperature (using a thermometer).

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1.2 Dimensions and Units
 time - seconds (s)
Fundamental length - meter (m)

Dimensions mass - kilogram (kg)
quantity - mole
1 mole of a substance contains 6.023 1023 atoms/molecules
1 mole has mass = moleculer mass of that substances (in grams)
e.g. 1 mole of Carbon = 12g mass
1 kilomole of C = 12kg mass
n kilomole of a substance = nM kg mass
i.e m
  n M

mass in kg no. of moles molecular mass
in kg / kmole

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1.2 Dimensions and Units (contd.)

Derived force - F ma newtons (N)


Dimensions  work - W F x joule (J or N.m)

Prefix
103  kilo k 10 3  milli m
106  mega M 10 6  micro 
109  giga G 10 9  nano n
1012  tera T 10 12  pico p

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1-3 Systems and Control Volume (Closed and Open
Systems)
Thermodynamic System
A quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study.

Surroundings
Everything external to the system.

Boundary
Surface that separates the system from the surrounding. It may be fixed or movable

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1-3 Closed and Open Systems
Closed system (Control mass)
A fixed amount of mass chosen for study (no
mass can cross its boundary). Heat and work
can cross the boundary, volume may also
change.
e.g. piston cylinder.

Open system (Control volume)

A selected region chosen for study. Mass, heat
and work can cross its boundary, volume may
also change.
e.g. water heater, car radiator, turbine, nozzle.

Isolated system
A system closed to mass, heat and work flows.
It is not affected by the surroundings.
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Open Systems

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1-4 Properties of a system
Thermodynamic Property
A measurable quantity that defines the condition of a system
e.g. temperature T
pressure P
mass m
volume V
density ρ

Another useful property is

Specific volume (v)
defined as the volume of a unit mass.

volume 1
specific volume v  (m3 /kg)
mass 
volume
molal specific volume v (m3 /mol)
no. of moles
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Extensive and Intensive properties
Properties are of 2 types
Intensive properties Independent of mass. e.g. P, T, v, ρ

Extensive properties Change with mass. e.g. m, V, Energy

each 
consider a quantity of substance part  same intensive property

divide into 2 parts will  1/2 extensive property
have 

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Specific extensive properties
Extensive properties per unit mass are called
Specific properties

V
v (specific volume)
m
e.g.
E
e (specific energy)
m

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1.6 State and Equilibrium
A substance can be at various
pressures & temperatures or in various
states

State
Condition of a system identified by properties (e.g. T, P, v).
In a given state each property has 1 value.

Properties are defined when the system is in

Equilibrium
No unbalance exist in the system, and values of properties (T, P etc.) remain the same
when it is isolated from the surroundings.
Thermal equilibrium: temperature of system does not change when it is isolated from surroundings
Mechanical equilibrium: pressure of system does not change when it is isolated from surroundings
Chemical equilibrium: chemical composition does not change when it is isolated from surroundings
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 The state postulate
The state of a simple compressible system is completely
specified by 2 independent intensive properties

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1.7 Processes and Cycles
Process
The transformation of a system from one state to another state through a
succession of states

called State 2 called

Initial state Process
Final state
P = 100 kPa State 1
P = 100 kPa
T = 25oC T = 40oC

The state of a system is defined when it is in equilibrium.

If we change the state very fast it is not in equilibrium during the process (non-equilibrium process)
If we change it slowly then the system is in equilibrium during the process (quasi-equilibrium process)

Quasi-equilibrium process (ideal process)

The system is very near to equilibrium in all successive states during the process.
Non-equilibrium process
The system is not in equilibrium during the process. States during the process are undefined
We can only define the initial and final states. 19
1.7 Processes and Cycles
Quasi-equilibrium process and Non-equilibrium process

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1.7 Processes and Cycles
Properties like pressure (P) and volume (V) can be plotted during a process

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1.7 Processes and Cycles - The steady flow process
Defined for open systems (Control volume) for which conditions do not change
with time at each location during the process.

Pi , Ti

Pe , Te

at inlet Pi , Ti  different - but they do not

e.g . 
at exit Pe , Te  change with time
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1.7 Forms of Energy
Thermal
 Mechanical

 Kinetic Energy KE  Units
Total 
( E )  Potential Energy PE  Joules  J 
Energy  magnetic
  or kiloJoules kJ 
 neglected in
 chemical 

nuclear  ME 203
 
E
Specific energy e   kJ / kg 
m
Energy contained in a system is also a property since it tells us the condition of the system

Energy may be contained (stored) in a system as

Microscopic form Macroscopic form

Energy related to molecular structure Energy related to motion or elevation
called Internal energy of the system e.g.
denoted by U KE = ½ mV2 or PE = mgz
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1.7 Forms of Energy
Energy is contained in a system as internal, kinetic and potential energy

mV 2
Total energy , E U  KE  PE U   mgz
2
E V2
Specific total energy , e  u  ke  pe u   gz
m 2
U
Specific internal energy , u 
m

Energy transfers at the system boundary as heat and work

Energy transfer at boundary

Heat , Q
Work , W

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1.7 Forms of Energy

Transfers (enters or leaves) Contained/Stored

at the system boundary as In a system as
Heat or Work U + KE + PE

Energy is contained in a system (as U + KE + PE) and can be transferred at the system
boundary (as Heat or Work)

3 ways in which energy is stored as internal energy (U) –microscopic form- in each
phase of a substance.
1. Intermolecular potential energy
2. Molecular kinetic energy
3. Intra molecular energy
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1.7 Forms of Energy
3 ways in which energy is stored as internal energy (U)

Intermolecular potential energy

Because of forces between molecules.
At low densities particles are far away  intermolecular PE is low then we call it GAS
If it is assumed to be zero, so we have independent molecules, we call it IDEAL GAS

Molecular kinetic energy

Because of translational motion of molecules
It depends on the mass and velocities of the molecules

Intra molecular energy (within individual molecules)

Because of the molecular and atomic structure and related forces
Very small compared with the other forms.

Latent energy
Energy related to binding forces. Strongest in solids, weakest in gases.
If sufficient energy is added to the molecules of a solid or liquid they break away and the substance
becomes vapor. This is phase change process and the related energy is called latent energy

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1.8 Energy and Environment (Self Study)

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1.8 Temperature and 0th law of thermodynamics
Temperature: Degree of hotness of coldness

0th law of thermodynamics

When 2 bodies have equality of temperature with a 3rd body, then they have equality of
temperature with each other.

TA TB

TC

if TA TC & TB TC

then TA TB 28
1.8 Temperature and 0th law of thermodynamics
Temperature Scales: To relate temperatures that we read from different
devices we need a standard scale of temperature

Ice point (0 oC)

The temperature of a mixture of ice and water in equilibrium at a
pressure of 1 atmosphere.

Steam point (100 oC)

The temperature of water and steam which are in equilibrium at a
pressure of 1 atmosphere.

Triple point of water (0.01oC)

A single fixed point at a state in which the solid, liquid and vapor
phases of water all exist in equilibrium.

Absolute scale of temperature:

A temperature scale independent of any thermometric substance
K o C  273.15 note that T in K  T in oC 
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1.9 Pressure Units
normal force 1 Pascal  Pa  1N / m 2
P
area 1 bar 105 Pa 0.1MPa
1 atm 101325 Pa 101.325kPa

In thermodynamics we use absolute pressure (P)

devices or instruments measure gauge pressure (Pg)
which is the pressure above or below the atmospheric pressure (Patm or P0)
P Patm  Pg where Patm P0 101.325 kPa at sea level
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1.10 Pressure Patm
Manometer: used to measure gauge pressure
Points 1 and 2 at the same height and
connected by the same liquid have the
same pressure. i.e.
F1 F2 P
P1 P2 or 
A1 A2
weight of liquid above 2
P P1 P2 Patm 
cross-sectional area
 volume g  area h g
Patm  Patm 
area area
 density of measuring liquid
P Patm   hg
g 9.81m / s 2
Barometer: used to measure absolute pressure
PB PC   hg but PC 0 (i.e. vaccum)
 PB  gh
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1.10 Pressure
Piston and Cylinder
At equilibrium
Fext = P.AP
If the system is heated the free moving piston
will move to adjust the inside pressure so
that Fext = P.AP

External forces Fext

1) Due to atmospheric pressure, P0AP
2) Due to mass of piston, mPg
3) Due to a spring, kx
Fext P0 AP  m p g  k spring x
mp g k
V Fext Pext P0   2V
x & Pext  AP AP
Ap AP

PV diagram
Plot of pressure inside the cylinder against it’s volume
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