Chapter Two

Measurement of Horizontal Distances

2.1. Introduction
 Basic operations in surveying, distance between two points on the earth’s
surface is determined, and it has to be the horizontal distance.
 The distance between two points should be reduced in to its equivalent
horizontal distance, by field procedures or by applying slope corrections.
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2.2. Methods of Measurement
1) Pacing: used for approximate measurements quickly or to check
measurements made by more precise means.
2) Odometer: for rough measurements by rolling a wheel along the line to be
measured, and counting the number of revolutions. Useful for preliminary
surveys.
3) Tacheometry: a rapid indirect means of determining distance. Useful in
topographic surveying.
4) Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM): works based on speed of
light /electromagnetic waves. Used for measuring long distance and for
construction lay out.
5) Taping: steel tapes varying in length from 1m to 300m are used. Formerly,
the engineer’s chain or Gunter’s chain was used for measurements of the
highest precision, special bars were used.
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2.3. Chain Surveying/Taping
Chain surveying is a method of land surveying where only linear measurement
are made. Instruments used
a) Chain: - widely used method for measuring distance.
 It was 100 ft steel ribbon type.

 66 ft chain (Gunter’s chain) 4 pole chain or 100 ft chain composed of 100

links each having 1 ft long.
 They are available in lengths from a few feet to 1000ft.
b) Tapes: - made in a variety of materials, lengths and weights.
 Steel tapes, sometimes called the engineers or surveyor’s tape more
commonly used by surveyors and by engineering measurements.
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2.4. Sources of Errors and corrections
2.4.1. Sources of errors
 The principal systematic errors in linear measurements made with a tape are:
 Incorrect length of tape
 Tape not horizontal;
 Variation in temperature;
 Incorrect tension or pull;
 Sag in tape;
 Incorrect an alignment of tape
 Random errors introduced in taping measurements are because of:
 Error in determining temperature of tape;
 Failure to apply the proper tension;
 Wind deflecting the plumb bob.
 Taping pin not set exactly where the plumb bob touched the ground.
 Inability of the observer to estimate the last place in reading between graduations.
 Inability of the tape man to steady the plumb bob.
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2.4.2. Corrections for errors in tape measurement

1. Incorrect length of tape
 The length of steel tape may vary when it is kinked, worn and
imperfectly repaired after breaks. So, in order to reduce (eliminate) the
variation in length, it should be checked with the standard.
 The correction to be applied to any measurement made with the tape in
order to account for the deviation is called the absolute correction Ca.
Ca= true length-nominal length
 The true length is the value determined by calibration under specific
conditions. Tape too long add correction, tape too short subtract
correction.
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Example:
A distance is measured with a 50m steel tape and is found to be 1357.40m.
Later the tape is standardized and is found to have an actual length of
49.96m. What is the correct distance measured?
Solution:
Ca=true length-nominal length
= 49.96-50=-0.04/ tape length
Corrected distance =
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2. Misalignment of Tape
 If the tape is assumed to be on a survey line, it may be misaligned out of
survey line and an error is introduced. This misalignment may be at the
end of the tape or at the middle of the tape.
 If the end of the tape is out of line by an amount h in a length L, the error
will be
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 If the tape is not pulled straight and the center of the tape is out of line by a
length h then,

3. Change in Temperature
 When a taping instrument is made, it is standardized for different
conditions, temperature, pull and support. When the field temperature
differs considerably from the standard, a measurement made with a take
will also vary considerably because of the thermal expansion of the
material to which the tape is made.
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So, possible corrections are necessary for the variation in length of the tape by
the equation

Where;
Ct =temperature correction (m)
= Coefficient of thermal expansion(for steel =11.5*10-6/0C)

L = Length of tape actually used

T = Temperature at which measurement is made (0C)
Ts= Temperature at which tape was standardized (0C)
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Example:
A traverse line is 152.4 m long. If the tape used in the field is 50.0m when
standardized at 170C, what correction must be applied if the temperature at
the time of measurement is 230C? ( =11.2*10-6/0C)
Solution:
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4. Correction for tension (CT)
 If a tape is used in the field under a tension different from the standard
tension used in calibration, the tape will change its length a slight amount
according to the relationship between stress and strain. The amount of
correction to be added or subtracted for the measured length is a function
of the measured length, tension during taping, the standard tension, cross
sectional area of the tape, and the modulus of elasticity of which the tape
is made.
 Correction for pull (incorrect tension)
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Where
Cp is the correction per tape length (m)
P is the tension applied (kg)
Ps standard tension (kg)
L the length (m)
A is the cross-sectional area of tape (cm2)
E is the modulus of elasticity of the steel tape
Modules of Elasticity of steel is 2,100,000kg/cm2 in order to maintain
constant tension, spring balance can be used.
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Example:
A 30m tape weighing 0.90kg has cross-sectional area of 0.0485 cm2. The tape
measures 29.94m when it is pulled under a tension of 45kg. The tape was
standardized under a tension of 10kg and modulus of elasticity of the tape
is 2.1x106 kg/cm2. Determine the correct distance measured.
Solution:
Using the above equn (correction for pull)
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Working Examples
1. A 20m steel tape was standardized on flat ground at a temperature of 20 0C
and under a pull of 15kg. The tape was used in catenary at a temperature
of 300C and under a pull of Po kg. The cross sectional area of the tape is
0.02cm2, and its total weight is 400g. The Young’s modulus and
coefficient of linear expansion of steel are 2.1x106kg/cm2 and 11x10-6
per 0C respectively. If P is equal to 10kg.
Find
A) Temperature Correction
B) Pull Correction
C) Sag Correction
D) Total Correction
E) Correct horizontal distance