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6.Chinese Civilization (2)

Ancient Chinese civilization began in the early 2nd millennium BCE and lasted until the end of the Han dynasty in 220 CE, developing independently from other ancient cultures. Key dynasties include the Xia, Shang, Zhou, Qin, and Han, each contributing to China's political, social, and cultural evolution. The Shang Dynasty is notable for its historical records and advancements in writing, while the Han Dynasty established Confucianism as the state philosophy and saw significant economic and territorial expansion.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
18 views46 pages

6.Chinese Civilization (2)

Ancient Chinese civilization began in the early 2nd millennium BCE and lasted until the end of the Han dynasty in 220 CE, developing independently from other ancient cultures. Key dynasties include the Xia, Shang, Zhou, Qin, and Han, each contributing to China's political, social, and cultural evolution. The Shang Dynasty is notable for its historical records and advancements in writing, while the Han Dynasty established Confucianism as the state philosophy and saw significant economic and territorial expansion.

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mruthul0123
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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6.

CHINESE CIVILIZATION
Ancient China’s civilization refers to that period of
Chinese history which began in the early 2nd
millennium BCE, when a literate, city-based culture
first emerged, to the end of the Han dynasty, in 220
CE.
China is a vast country with a huge range of terrains and
climates within it: mountains, deserts and coastlands
and above all, the great river systems of China, the
Yellow River to the north and the Yangtze to the south.
All these have helped shape Chinese civilization.
China is one of the world's four ancient civilizations, and
the written history of China dates back to the Shang
Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC), over 3,000 years ago.

In ancient China, civilization developed much like it did in
Mesopotamia, Egypt and the Indus Valley.

But while these other civilizations grew side by side, knew of
each other and had trade relationship in between them,
Chinese civilization developed independently, with very little
influence from the cultures to the west.

An urban civilization did not emerge in China until about 2000
BC, about a thousand years later than in Mesopotamia, but it
emerged as a large and highly developed kingdom.

The civilisation of ancient China grew up on the river banks of
Yang- Tse-Kiang, Hwang-ho and Si-Kiang.

The Chinese civilisation flourished being uninfluenced by any
external impact.

The dynamic and rich civilization of the Chinese flourished at
the eastern end of mainland China. E

Eastern China is a vast watershed drained by two large river
systems which rise on the Tibetan plateau and Kunlun
Mountains and flow eastward to the Pacific.

The Yellow river traverses the north China plain. The Yangtze
and its valley lie to the south. Smaller rivers and valleys
converge on present-day Canton.

The climate in the south is semi-tropical and monsoon-
drenched. China has been protected by the Gobi Desert in the
north, the Tibetan plateau and Pamir and Himalaya mountains
in the west, the forests of Southeast Asia in the South and the
Pacific Ocean in the east.

The ancieny history of china is in the form of legends and
stories .it is only from the 12th centuryBCE that history,in the
real sense of the term begins.

Before that the chinese had made progress in agrculture and
other crafts like silk- weaving ,basket making, Utensil
making,and ornaments.

They reared cattle and domesticated animals including horses.

They also excelled in making metalwares and porcelain products.

It was about this time that many chinese drifted towards faroff lands
like Tibet, Burma and Indo-china.
Political History of China

From the Shang Dynasty in (1700/1600-1046 BCE) to the Ching
(Qing) Dynasty (1644-1912 AD) there were twenty four dynasties
ruled over this vast stretch of land in the Chinese mainland. The
most prominet among them were

The Xia Dynasty 2070–1600 BCE— Early Bronze Age China-Pre
Historic Period

Shang dynasty-1700/1600-1046 BCE - Historic period begins

Chou or Zhou Dynasty- 1046-256 BCE

Qin Dynasty- 221-207 BCE

Han Dynasty- 206 BCE- 220 CE

Six Dynasties -220- 589

Sui Dynasty - 581–618 CE

Tang Dynasty - 618-907 CE

Five Dynasties - 907–960 CE

Liao Dynasty – 907–1125 CE

Song Dynasty- 960–1279 CE

Yuan Dynasty -1271-1368 CE

Ming Dynasty 1368–1644 CE

Qing Dynasty 1644–1911 CE

The Republic of China Era 1912–1949 CE

Modern China 1949–Now CE
The Xia Dynasty (2070–1600 BC)
The Xia Dynasty was considered as the first dynasty of
ancient China.
It's generally believed that the Xia Dynasty consisted of
several clans living alongside the Yellow River.
The Xia Dynasty is traditionally considered to be the
beginning of China's hereditary dynasty.
Considered mythical by many historians, Xia era relics found
in a site called Erlitou in the central Yellow River Basin are
yet to be conclusively linked with the Xia Dynasty as
described in Zhou Dynasty writings.
The Shang Dynasty (1600–1046 BC)
The Shang Dynasty was the first dynasty with historical records
remaining.
The earliest form of Chinese writing — oracle bones — were found
to tally with later accounts of the Shang Dynasty.
Chinese civilization truly began along the Yellow River in the
Shang era.
The Simuwu Rectangular Ding in the National Museum of China
was made in the Shang Dynasty is the largest bronze vessel
ever found in the world.
• The Shang Dynasty was the first Chinese dynasty with written
records. The Shang ruled from around 1600 BC to 1046 BC.
Some historians consider the Shang to be the first Chinese
Dynasty. Other historians consider it to be the second dynasty,
coming after the legendary Xia Dynasty.
• History -The Shang tribe grew into power around 1600 BC.
Legend has it that the Shang were united under the leadership
of Cheng Tang.
• Cheng Tang defeated the evil King Jie of the Xia to begin the
Shang Dynasty. The Shang ruled an area around the Yellow
River Valley for around 500 years.
• They had many rulers and capital cities during that time. The
government became corrupt under the rule of King Di Xin.
• He was overthrown by Wu of Zhou and the Zhou Dynasty was
founded.
• Much of what we know about the Shang comes from oracle
bones.
• These were bones that the Shang used to try and determine the
future. Religious men would write a question on one side of the
bone and then burn the bone until it cracked.
• They would then interpret the cracks for the answers and write
the answers on the other side of the bone. Historians are able to
decipher much of the history of the Shang through these
questions and answers.
• Thousands of oracle bones have been found by archeologists.
Other information about the Shang comes from Ancient Chinese
historians such as Sima Quian from the Han Dynasty.
• Some short inscriptions are also found on bronze religious
items of the Shang.
• Writing The Shang were the first Chinese Dynasty to invent
writing and have a recorded history.
• This ancient writing is fairly similar to modern Chinese script.
Writing enabled the Shang to have a fairly organized society
and government.
• Government The government of the Shang was fairly
advanced. They had many levels of leaders starting with the
king. Most of the high level officials were closely related to the
king.
• Warlords often ruled areas of land, but owed allegiance to the
king and would provide soldiers during times of war.
• The government collected taxes from the people and tributes
from surrounding allies.
• The Shang also developed bronze technology. They did not
make normal tools out of bronze, but used bronze for religious
items and weapons.
• Bronze weapons such as spears gave the Shang an
advantage in war against their enemies.
The Shang also used horse-drawn chariots in battle, giving them a
further advantage.
Shang Dynasty is sometimes referred to as the Yin Dynasty.
One of the most famous kings of the Shang was Wu Ding who
ruled for 58 years.
The last capital of the Shang was the city of Yin Xu. Archeologists
have discovered many oracle bones at Yin Xu.
Most of the oracle bones discovered have been the shoulder
blades of oxen or turtle shells.
The Shang worshiped their dead ancestors as well as a supreme
being called Shangdi.
• The rulers paid attention to agriculture. The people domesticated
animals which included the horses.

Bronze castings,among other things,of this period have been
discovered in Anyang recently.The Shang rulers brought about the
unification of all the city-states near the Yellow River.

Unfortunately,they did not develop it into a well-knit kingdom. The
people developed many crafts,among which the most prominent were
glazed pottery,silk-weaving,and making the bronze vessels.

The Shangs ruled their kingdom form their capital,Anyang.The
Chinese started worshipping their great God Shang Ti and other
nature gods.They offered prayers and sacrifices to gods in the
temples.

It was around 1046 BC, that the Shang capital,Anyang,fell into the
hands of the Chou,who lived on the western borders.The Chou set up
their own dynasty and proclaimed their king as the “Son of Heaven”.
Chou or Zhou Dynasty- 1046-256 BCE

The chou rulers ruled china for nearly 8 centuries . One of their
greatest rulers was Wu-wang. He led a number of campaigns and
established an empire stretching its southers borders upto the river
valley of Yangtse .

As long as he lived he controlled a number of feudatory rulers and
maintained the integrity of his empire.

But loyalty to the Chou emperors continued as long as they
remained strong therefore weak emperors succeeded , the
feudatory chieftains frequently asserted their independence.

Some timed they threatened the very existence of the central
govt.

Like in ancient Egypt , Chima wittnessed the rule of the feudal
lords fom the middle of the 8th century BCE.

The Chou emperors become mere figure-heads.

Whatever may have been the political conditions ,China
continued to register progress not only in agriculture , industry
and commerce but also in education and philosophy.

The Chou Age came to be called as the Classical Age for its
contribution to learning and philosophy.It produced great moral
teachers – Lao-Tse, Confucius, Mencius.

The art of writing was probably known to the Chinese as early
as the commencement of the Shang rule.

It fully developed into a combination of pictures and sounds .An
averagechinese student learned about 3000 signs. They did
not produce Alphabet like the Phoenicians or the Greeks.
Qin Dynasty- 221-207 BCE
It was around 256 BCE that the Chou emperor yielded place to a
powerful feudal lord of the Chin.

Emerging from the chaos of the Warring States period, the Qin
(or Ch‘in) Dynasty conquered its rivals and unified the country.
The Qin dynasty was one of the shortest in all of Chinese history.

It lasted only about fifteen years. But it was one of the most
important dynasties, because it united China for the first time in
centuries as a single state-in many ways.

About 221 BCE Qins produced their greatest warrior and
statesman , Qin Shihuangdi. He reduced all the rebellious feudal
lords to subjection and carried wars of conquests.

He ended feudalism which had proved to be great curse to his
country.

He built a well -knit empire having 36 provinces. He encourages
the feudal lords to live in the Chinese capital and appointed
trusted and loyal governors to administer those 36 provinces.

To protect his subjects living near the north western borders of
his empire from frequent attacks of the barbarians like the
Huns,he erected the Great Wall of China.

Successive rulers continued this work , and the present wall is
1500 mile long , 22 feet high, and 20 feet thick. It has watch
towers at regular intervals.
Destruction of old literature

Qin shihuangdi styled himself as the first universal emperor and
set sbout the task of destroying the works ofconfucius and others
by saying they were feudal in nature.

Onlybooks on medicine and other technical subjects were spared.

Qin shihuangdi also encouraged a new kind of literature and
rendered help to reform the chinese languageand script.

He introduced uniform code of laws throughout the country.

During his fifty-four year reign, the Han Dynasty reached its
height.

The Xiongnu (most dangerous barbarians in this period were
the Xiongnu (Hsiung-nu), or Huns, a nomadic-pastoralist
warrior people from the Eurasian steppe ) were driven back
and the borders were pushed farther than ever before, roughly
doubling the size of the empire.

As the Chinese pushed farther west, trade contacts were
established with Persia, India, and the Roman Empire.

At home, Emperor Wu attempted to weaken the authority of
the regional aristocracy by giving more authority to handpicked
governors drawn from the shi class.

The Han Dynasty was able to face these threats and survive
because of a strong centralized state. The state was funded
primarily by a poll tax (a set tax on every individual) and land
taxes (a portion of the harvest).

This meant that the prosperity of the agricultural estates
determined the prosperity of the Han government.

It was in the Han period that the Chinese system of class hierarchy
became well developed.

This hierarchy, called the ―four occupations, gave aristocratic
scholars (called shi) the highest status, followed by farmers (who
were precious to the state, both because they produced food and
paid the land tax), followed by craftsmen and artisans, and finally
merchants at the bottom of society (because, according to the
thinking of the time, they did not produce anything, they merely sold
what others produced).

During Wu-Ti's fifty-four year reign, the Han Dynasty reached its
height.

Emperor Wu centered the state on Confucian teachings. Although
the first few Han emperors promoted Confucianism along with
Taoism and Legalism, Emperor Wu promoted Confucianism
exclusively, abandoning state support for other philosophies.

The Confucian ideals that order and harmony were the result
of good government and that social harmony depended on
each person accepting his social position helped legitimize the
state and make people more willing to accept state power over
them.

At the same time, these ideals encouraged the state to act
justly toward its people. From the time of Emperor Wu the Han
Dynasty accepted Confucianism as the state philosophy.

In another important move, Emperor Wu created civil-service
examinations, in which potential government officials were
tested on their knowledge of the Confucian classics.

The exams were designed to ensure that bureaucrats would
be chosen for their intelligence, instead of their birth or
connections.

While the civil-service exams would not be the most important
factor in selecting officials until after the Han Dynasty, Emperor
Wu‘s program was an important first step.

In addition, by making the Confucian classics the subject of
the exams, Emperor Wu ensured that these texts would remain
the most important Chinese texts for centuries to come .

Finally, Emperor Wu reformed the Chinese economy.
Although merchants had the lowest status in classical China,
some had grown exceedingly rich by selling salt and iron,
which were produced by peasants who would otherwise farm
and thus be subject to the land tax.

Emperor Wu nationalized the salt and iron industries, but
avoided unrest and inefficiency by employing the former
businessmen as government officials in charge of the
industries.

Emperor Wu also promoted officials who were experts in
agriculture, and initiated reforms that made farming more
efficient.

After his death han empire began to collapse;

When the Han Dynasty collapsed in 220 AD, no one was
powerful enough to reunify China under a single emperor.

The result was the era of the Three Kingdoms. These three
kingdoms (Wei, Shu, and Wu) battled for control in a long
series of wars. This was one of the bloodiest periods of
Chinese history .

In 311 AD, the capital, Luoyang, was captured by the
invaders, and little more than a hundred years later the dynasty
was no more.

China was once again divided into a patchwork of
independent kingdoms.

It would take more than a century for another dynasty to
reunite China under imperial rule but by that time China had
passed from the ancient to the medieval era.
Tang Dynasty- 618-907 CE

After the fall of Han Dynasty China lapsed into political chaos
marked by civil war and political rivalries.

it was only in the early 7th century CE order was restored by the
tang rulers.

There was the revival of the golden ge , particularly aftr the
accession of Tai Sung in 627CE.

He built the largest empire and encouraged trade and
commerce with the outside world.

Although he was a Taoist, he tolerated other religions such as
buddhism, Zoroastrianism and christianity.

The tang dynasty ruled China till the early 10th century
Contributions of Chinese Civilization
The Chinese Polity

The social and political order of ancient China was one of the
most stable and most highly organised among the old world
civilisations.

1.The State

Perhaps the most remarkable product of Chinese civilization
was the Imperial State.

With a tradition of more than 2000 years, and lasting in
basically unchanged form for nearly 1000 years.

Its iron frame held China together as a single political unit
through most of its recorded history down to modern times.
Presiding over it was the Emperor, the Son of Heaven whose
authority and prestige was acknowledged by peoples even
outside China‘s administrative boundaries.

However its most distinctive feature was rule through a highly
structured bureaucracy or elite corps of officials, the so-called
mandarins, who were in the main recruited through a system of
examinations based on scholarship.

This state came into being in a recognisable form in 221 B.C.,
when the ruler of Qin, one of the many feudal states competing
for supremacy at that time, unified China and proclaimed
himself the First Emperor.

For the first time, the entire realm was divided into standard
administrative units and ruled directly by the Emperor through
his officials.

Although this system underwent substantial modifications
under later dynasties and even collapsed altogether for a
period of three and a half centuries after the fall of the Han
dynasty (around 220 A.D.), it remained the norm and the basic
pattern of governing in ancient China.
2.The Emperor

The basic function and responsibility of the Emperor in China
was to maintain order-both the political-social order and also
the natural order of things.

In the first sense, the Emperor was the supreme civil and
military head.

All officials were directly appointed by him and were directly
accountable to him. In all periods, severe punishments could
be and were often imposed on officials who fell out of favour
with the Emperor.

He was expected to personally go through the staggering
number of documents and proposals put before him on all
matters connected with government, and to take decisions on
those.

He was the supreme law maker and the final court of appeal
in all cases.

He also commanded the armed forces. The Emperors made
sure that military power was highly centralised and no regional
warlords were allowed to emerge.

He was also, in a significant sense, the cultural head of his
people, and great importance was attached to his role as the
patron of learning and art.

For these reasons, the political system in China has been
characterised as a despotism or autocracy.

There were, however, some restraints on the arbitrariness of
an Emperor.

In the first place, because of the great veneration paid to
ancestors, the Emperor could not be seen as acting contrary to
the precedent set by the Emperors before him, particularly
those of his own ruling house.

Secondly, there was a tradition of high officials criticising an
Emperor who strayed from the accepted norms.

He also commanded the armed forces. The Emperors made
sure that military power was highly centralised and no regional
warlords were allowed to emerge.

He was also, in a significant sense, the cultural head of his
people, and great importance was attached to his role as the
patron of learning and art.

For these reasons, the political system in China has been
characterised as a despotism or autocracy.

There were, however, some restraints on the arbitrariness of
an Emperor.

In the first place, because of the great veneration paid to
ancestors, the Emperor could not be seen as acting contrary to
the precedent set by the Emperors before him, particularly
those of his own ruling house.

Secondly, there was a tradition of high officials criticising an
Emperor who strayed from the accepted norms.

The Emperors were expected to respect their (high
officials)words or at least let them speak without punishment.

There was even a specific group of officials known as the
censors whose job was to criticise the Emperor when they
thought it necessary.

The Emperor may have been the ―Son of Heaven.whoever
occupied the imperial throne was considered to be the Son of
Heaven and to enjoy Heaven‘s Mandate.

All Emperors and ruling houses were thus aware of the
impermanence of their position, and the theory of the Mandate
of Heaven was often skilfully manipulated by their advisors and
officials to get an Emperor to adopt a particular course of
action or to change his ways
Political organization

Political condition in china favoured the growth of benevolent
monarchy

But china also wittnessed with political disturbances, between
end of one dynasty and beginning of the other , political
disorders followed.

Inspite of such crisis China produced great rulers of that period.

Shi-Huang-Ti has united china as had never been seen before.

His political genius lay in abolishing feudalism and
esthablishment of a strong central government.

Through his uniform Code of Laws , standard weights and
measures, reforms in language and script, and protection of
outlying provinvces, he welded the people into a nation.

Following his footsteps were others, like emperors Wu-Ti and
Tai-Sung

Another feature of chinese political system along with
benevolent monarchuy was an efficient bureaucracy.

From the early days the chinese emperors introduced a civil
service whose personnel came to be selected through
competitive examinations

The Han emperors(206 BCE-220CE) introduced a competetive
examination to recruit civil servants.

For the purpose of efficient administration, the empire was
divided into provinces and and each provinces into a number
of districts

The emperor appointed trusted civil servants ie; Mandarins to
govern over them.

The border provinces came under special care for they
wittnessed the continuous attack of barbarians.

The Han emperors provided for the Border Security Force to
guard vulnerable places near the border.
Economic conditions

The bulk of Chinese population was engaged in agriculture.
Through proper irrigation system they developed intensive farming
and practised rotation of crops. They used good seed and better
manures for getting yield.

Their food crops consisted of millet,wheat,barley,better rice,soya-
beans and sweet potatoes.

About the 2nd century BC drinking tea became a habit among the
Chinese.

The peasants also maintained livestock. Floods and famines
always ravaged the Chinese throughout thier history.

Since the early days of Shangs,the Chinese came to be known for
their metal products like excellent bronze vessels and glazed
pottery or porcelain ware.

They used wood and bamboos for making furniture. They are
known forproducing beautiful lacquer-ware.

Raising silk worms and silk weaving became a popular industry in
china.

The chinese silk commanded world market and the Roman craze
for silk and other Chinese products resulted in commercial ties
between these two empires.

The other famous industries in China included the manufacture of
paper,black ink,dyes,varnised tiles,attractively designed fans,
articled of jade.
Trade and Commerce

China's internal trade developed to a great extent after the
construction of canals and waterways.

Manufactured goods coming from the lower valleys were exchanged
for the raw materials produced in the upper valleys.

Commercial contacts with various countries in South Asia, Asia
Minor,and the Mediterranean region were established during the
time of Han emperors.

The Chinese exports included
silk,salt,iron,rhubarb,spices,jade,lacquer and fruit and imports
included precious stones,amber,coral and glass.

Coin currency appeared sometime during the late second century
BC. Banking and money-lending came into vogue. The merchants
of China formed guilds to protect their interests.
Early Chinese Society

The early Chinese society was composed of varied classes whose
obligations and duties to the state were duly recognised in a
particular order.

The social hierarchy consisted of Mandarians(bureaucrat
scholars/literary class-officials appointed through imperial
examinations.),the peasants and workers and the merchants.

There was stigma attached to the warrior class because they were
recruited from the lowest class which included criminals and men of
doubtful reputation. Slavery existed in China.

After the spread of confucianism there was marked change in the
society.

Family life became more secure and stable on account if attachment
between children and parents.

It was a social custom to divide the ancestral land equally among all
the sons.

Women did not enjoy high social status or any special privileges in
the society.

Confucius preferred giving rights to women. Instances of women
occupying high posts during the reign of 2 empresses after the death
of Tai Sung are recorded.
Religion and philosophy

The earliest religion which flourished in China was worshipping
of Gods of nature which was followed by ancestor worship.

In each Chinese house the family members practised ancestral
worship.

However in course of time, 3 religions found favour among the
Chinese. They were: Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism.
Confucianism

It is no exaggeration to say that Confucius dominated the minds
of the learned for centuries and he was finally deified.

He was born in the state of Lu( in Shantung province).

He rose from the post of the director of public lands to the chief
ministership of the Lu state.

He finally resigned the post when the ruler did not like his
reforming zeal.

After that he wandered for nearly 13 years attracting a large number
of disciples.

He died in 479 BC.

It must be said of confucius that he was a great studentof human
nature.

His country was in deep trouble and he felt that it was due to lack of
moral principles and social ethics on the part of indviduals in the
society.

Therefore , he started building a society by reviving the old norms
like ancestor worship, filial piety ,and obedience to authority.

He tried to bring about harmnious human relations between the
rulers and the ruled, between parents and children, elderand
younger brothers , husband and wife, and among friends.

He prescribed a code of conduct for almost everey classe of human
beings.

He taught good manners , humility, devotion to duty and trust
and faith in others.

His golden rule on etiquette was , “ what you do not like when
done to yourself, do not do to others “

His teachings had great effect on moulding the character of the
chinese for many centuries.

Confucius is also given credit for havong writtenor edited 5
works – classics, viz; The Book of History , Spring and Autumn
Annales ,Book of Odes ,Book of Changes and Book of Rites.
Taoism

Taoism was founded on the basis of the writings of Lao Tse
(604-517 BCE).

He worked as an archivist during the Chou rule and soon
became disappointed at seeing people turning selfish and
wicked.

He became a mystic thinker and writer.

His work Tao te'Ching contains his maxims and principles.

He insisted on leading a very simple life in harmony with
nature.

He said that people can know better of Tao (eter nal spirit) not
by study or reason but by deep contemplation and prayer.

Among other things he , he mentioned that the root cause of
unhappiness lay in greed and desires

He said that moral virtues should be developed andgood

His teachings attracted thousands ofsdherents.

But when buddhismspread all over China from the 1 st century CE
Taoism began to decline.

Mencius

Meng Tsu or Mencius(372-289BCE) was another great philosopher
who tried to bring about moral regeneration of the chinese society.

He was a greatbfollower of Confucianism .he attacked the prevailing
corruption in the Chinese administration and society and expressed
that the state exists for the welfare of the people.

He criticised forced labour and forced taxes. He believed that the
people had the right to overthrow tyrants.

Buddhism

Buddhist missionaries preaching principles of Mahayana Buddhism
were received warmlyin China during the 1 st century CE.

Among the Indian Buddhist Monks who assisted in setting up
a Mission in Central China,two are noteworthy.

They were Kasyapa Matanga and Dharmaraksha.

They went there with the sacred texts and relics of Buddha.

Buddhism became popular in China from 3rd century CE.Many
Buddhist schools were set up in China , the most popular
being Ch'an.

The spread of Buddhism has its impact on Chinese art like
painting and sculpture.
Art and Architecture

The early chinese painters used the camel's hair brush and
water colour to paint scenes of daily life on their canvas.some
times the canvas happened to be a woven silk .

The subject matter of painting differed as per the varying
interests of the period-like historical, religious, landscape and
portrait-.

In the field of sculpture , we came across several bronze
works with decorated figures belongs to the Shang , Chou,Han
,Tang dynasties.

The figures of a celestial flying horse or other animals like the
dragon are commonly observed on a variety of bronze vessals.

We also come across the Buddhist school of sculptors
producing the statue of the buddha.

The Great Wall of China may be counted asone of the great
architectural achievements of Chinese.Its vaulted gates and
impressive square towers are quite remarkable.

The place of Qin Shihuangdi must have been the most
beautiful in those days

The Chinese architecture is always associated with their
Pagodas.

The number of stories and its peculiar shaped roofs arrest the
attention of the onlookers.
Literature

Pictograms are the earliest form of Chinese writings.they had
about 40,000 of theseof which about 600 were commonly used.

The Chinese wrote on the chips of wood or on Linen paper.the
Chinese imperial court had number of poets.

Tufu's poems became popular. Ssu-m Chien began writing
about the first dynastic history of China.

His historical record is noted for itsobjectivity. Lyrical poetry
flourished during the Tang dynasty.besides Tufu's poems , we
come acrossthirty volumes of Chinese verse composed by
China;s great poet , Tai Li po.

The work of Confucius and Lao Tse also constituted an
important part in the early Chinse literature.
Science

The Chinese evinced keen interest in scientific development.
The elementary Mathematics included Ordinary Arithemetic and
a form of Algebra. Along with Algebra they developed theories of
Geometry.

They knew the value of n(22/7) ie Pi.Their early Astronomers
were able to evolve a new Lunar Calender and predict Eclipses
correctly.

Astrology developed and became popular with the priest.

They also developed interest in Chemistry and became familiar
with the basic elements of Matter.

In the field of Medicine , the Chinese made remarkable progress
. During the Chou dynasty a Canon of Medicine was compiled
which described the functions of several organs .

Thde Chinese Physicians gave herbal Drugs for curing many
disesases including Malaria and Bronchial disorders.

They performed minor operations and used Anesthetics .

In the later years they developed the tecqnique of
Acupuncture, which has been recognised now by the modern
Medical practitioners.

The ancient Chinese were known for their many inventions
which include Paper , Lunar Calender , Sun Dial and a Water
Clock.

I-Hsing produced the first mechanical Clock . Block printing
was also inventes . They were the first to use Gunpowder for
making crackers.

Chang-Heng a famous Astronomer ,Mathematician, and writer
of the Han period ,invented the first Seismograph to record
Earth quakes. Subsequently , they invented Mariners
Compass. Thus the Chinese contributed to the enrichment of
world culture and civilization.

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