1

Literature
Review
Problem of
Statement
Hypothesis
CHAPTER 3 & 4
(SB)
2 Chapter Discuss how
problem areas can
State research
problems clearly
Explain how
primary and
be identified. and precisely. secondary data

Objectives help the

researcher to
develop a problem
statement.

Develop relevant Write a literature Develop a

and review on any research proposal.
comprehensive given topic.
bibliographies for
any research
topic.
 Such issues might pertain to:

Problems currently existing in an

organizational setting that need to
3 Broad Problem
Area refers to be solved.
the entire
situation where Areas that a manager believes needs
one sees a to be improved in the organization.
possible need for
research and
problem solving.
A conceptual or theoretical issue that
needs to be tightened up for the
basic researcher to understand
certain phenomena.
 Training programs are perhaps not as
effective as anticipated.

The sales volume of a product is not

picking up.
4 Examples of
Broad Problem
Areas that Inventory control is not effective
Could be
Observed at the
Work Place Some members in organization are
not advancing in their careers.

The introduction of flexible work

hours has created more problems
than it has solved in many
companies.
 The nature of data to be
gathered could be
classified under two
headings:

5 Preliminary
Data Background information of
the organization (the
Collection contextual factors).

Prevailing knowledge on the

topic (relevant findings
from previous research).
 6

Preliminary • The background details of the

Data company can be obtained from
Collection
available published records, the
web site of the company.
• Company policies, procedures,
and rules can be obtained from
the organization’s records and
documents.
• Data gathered through such
existing sources are called
secondary data.
7 Preliminary Data Collection

• Secondary data, are data that already exist and

do not have to be collected by the researcher.
• Some secondary sources of data are statistical
bulletins, government publications, information
published or unpublished and available from either
within or outside the organization, library records,
data available from previous research, online data,
web sites, and the Internet.
8 Preliminary Data Collection

Other types of information

such as the perceptions and
attitudes of employees are Such data gathered for
best obtained by talking to research from the actual site
them; by observing events, of occurrence of events are
people, and objects; or by called primary data.
administering questionnaires
to individuals.
 9

Prevailing knowledge on
the topic
• A literature review should help the researcher
to identify and highlight the important variables
that are related to the problem.
 1
0
Literature • Literature survey is the
Survey documentation of a
comprehensive review of the
published and unpublished
work from secondary sources of
data in the areas of specific
interest to the researcher.
 11

Literature Survey

• The library is a rich storage base for

secondary data through books, journals,
newspapers, magazines, conference
proceedings, doctoral dissertations, master’s
theses, government publications, and financial
marketing, and other reports.
 12

Literature Survey

computerized
• The

databases is now readily available

and accessible, which makes the literature
search much easier, and can be done without
entering the portals of a library building.
 1
3
Reasons for the Literature Survey

1. Helps to find the

2. Helps the
important variables
development of the
that are likely to
theoretical framework
influence the problem
and hypotheses for
situation are not left
testing.
out of the study.

The problem statement

can be made with
precision and clarity.
 1
4
Reasons for the Literature Survey

4. Testability and replicability of

the findings of the current
research are enhanced.
5. One does not run the risk of
wasting efforts on trying to
rediscover something that is
already known.
6. The problem investigated is
perceived by the scientific
community as relevant and
significant.
 1
5
Conducting the Literature Survey

The first step in this

The literature review process involves
needs to be done on the identifying the various
specific issues of concern published and
to the researcher and the unpublished materials
factors identified during that are available on the
the interview process. topics of interest, and
gaining access to these.
 16
Conducting the Literature Survey

• The second step is gathering the

relevant information either by going through
the necessary materials in a library or by
getting access to online sources.

• The third step is writing up the

literature review.
 1
7
Data Sources

TEXTBOOKS ACADEMIC AND THESES: PHD CONFERENCE

PROFESSIONAL THESES AND PROCEEDINGS
JOURNALS MASTER
THESES.

UNPUBLISHED REPORTS NEWSPAPERS THE INTERNET

MANUSCRIPTS
 18

Searching for literature

• There are three forms of databases:

1. The bibliographic databases, which
display only the bibliographic citations, that
is, the name of the author, the title of the
article (book), source of publication, year,
volume, and page numbers.
 19

Searching for Literature

2. The abstract databases, which

in addition provide an abstract or
summary of the articles.
3. The full-text databases, which
provide the full text of the article.
 Databases are also available for
obtaining statistics- marketing,
financial, and so on.
 20

Searching for Literature

• Online search provides the following

advantages:
1. Saving enormous amount of time.
2. Are comprehensive in their listing and review of
references.
3. The researcher can focus on materials most
central to the research efforts.
4. Finding access to references is relatively
inexpensive.
 21
Searching for Literature

• Accessing the online system and getting a

printout of all the published works in the area of
interest from the bibliographical index will
provide a comprehensive bibliography on the
subject, which will form the basis for the next
step.
 22
Searching for Literature

• From the bibliography on the subject, the

researcher should do the followings:
A look at the titles of the articles or books will
indicate which of these may be important.
The abstract of such articles that seem to be
relevant will give an idea of the article that
need to be looked into in depth.
The full text of which can then be printed out.
 2
3

• While reading these articles,

take notes about the problem
that was researched, the design
details of the study (such as the
Searching sample size and data collection
for methods), and the ultimate
Literature findings of the study.
• These notes will facilitates the
writing up of the literature
review with maximum efficiency.
 2
4
Writing Up the Literature Review

The documentation of The literature survey

the relevant studies is a clear and logical
citing the author and presentation of the
the year of the study relevant research
is called literature work done thus far in
review or literature the area of
survey. investigation.
 Writing Up the Literature Review

• The purpose of the literature survey is:

 To identify and highlight the important variables.
 To document the significant findings from earlier
research that will serve as the foundation on which
the theoretical framework for the current investigation
can be built and the hypotheses developed.

2
5
 Such documentation is
important to convince the
reader that:

2 Writing Up
6 the The researcher is
knowledgeable about the

Literature
problem area.

Review
The theoretical framework
will be structured on work
already done and will add to
the solid foundation of
exiting knowledge.
 Examples of Literature
Surveys
Organizational effectiveness
Organization theorists have defined organizational
effectiveness (OE) in various ways. OE has been described in
terms of objectives (Georgopolous and Tannenbaum, 1957),
goals (Etzioni, 1960), efficiency (Katz and Kahn, 1966),
resources acquisition (Yuchtman and Seashore, 1967). As
Coutler (2002) remarked, there is little consensus on how to
conceptualize, measure, or explain OE.

2
7
 Examples of Literature
Surveys
Researchers are now moving away from a single model
and are taking contingency approaches to
conceptualizing OE (Cameron, 1996; Wernerfelt, 1998;
Yetley, 2001). However, they are still limiting
themselves to examining the impact of the dominant
factors in the organization’s life cycle instead of taking
a broader, more dynamic approach (Dahl, 2001, p.25).

2
8
 29

What insights can be gained

from the above example?
1. The literature review introduces the subject of
study.
2. Highlights the problem (that we do not have a
good conceptual framework for understanding OE).

3. Summarizes the work done so far on the topic ( by

reporting the citations in the body of the
research by mentioning the family names
and the year of publication only).
 Defining the Problem
Statement
• After the literature review, the researcher is in
position to narrow down the problem from its
original broad base and define the issues of
concern more clearly.

3
0
 31

What makes a good

problem statement?
 The problem statement introduces the key
problem that is addressed in the research
project.
 Problem statement is a clear, precise, and
short statement of the specific issue that a
researcher wishes to investigate.
 32

The three key criteria for

problem statement
• There are three key criteria to assess the
quality of the problem statement:
1. It should be relevant
2. It should be feasible
3. It should be interesting
 Nothing is known about
the topic.

Much is known about the

3 From an topic, but the knowledge
is scattered.
3 academic
perspective,
Much research on the
research is topic is available, but the
relevant if: results are contradictory.

Established relationships
do not hold in certain
situations.
 34

A problem statement is
feasible
• If you are able to answer the problem statement within
the restrictions of the research project.
• These restrictions are possibly related to time and
money and the expertise of the researcher (a
problem statement may be too difficult to answer).

• Thus, it is important that you develop a narrowly

defined question that can be investigated with a
reasonably amount of time and efforts.
 35

The problem statement is

interesting
• Because research is a time-consuming
process and you will go through many ups and
downs before you present a final version of
your research report. It is therefore vital that
you are interested in the problem
statement that you are trying to answer, so
you can stay motivated throughout the
entire process.
 36

Examples of broad problem areas

that a manager could observe at the
workplace:
• Training programs are not as effective as
anticipated.
• The sales volume of a product is not
picking up.
• Minority group members are not
advancing in their careers.
• The newly installed information system is
not being used by the managers for whom
it was primarily designed.
• The introduction of flexible work hours has
created more problems than it has solved
in many companies.
 37

Examples of Well-Defined
Problem Statements
• To what extent do the structure of the organization and
type of information systems installed account for the
variance in the perceived effectiveness of managerial
decision making?
• To what extent has the new advertising campaign been
successful in creating the high-quality, customer-centered
corporate image that it was intended to produce?
• How has the new packaging affected the sales of the
product?
• What are the effects of downsizing on the long-range
growth patterns of companies?
 3
8
Format for At least three modes of
Referenci referencing are followed in
ng business research. These
Relevant are based on the format
Articles provided on the publication
manual of the American
Psychological Association
(APA) (2001), the Chicago
Manual of Style (1993), and
the Turabian Style (1996).
 39
Format for Referencing
Relevant Articles

• Each of these manuals specifies how

books, journals, newspapers,
dissertations, and other materials are to
be referenced in manuscripts.
• In this course, we will follow the APA
format for referencing books, journals,
newspaper articles, dissertations, and so
on.
 40
Specimen Format for Citing
Different Types of References

Book by a single author

• Leshin, C.B. (1997). Management on the World
Wide Web. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Book by more than one author
• Cornett, M., Wiley, B.J., and Sankar, S. (1998).
The pleasures of nurturing. London: McMunster
Publishing.
 41
Specimen Format for Citing
Different Types of References

More than one book by the same author in

the same year

• Roy, A. (1998a). Trade theory. New York:

McMillian Publishing Enterprises.
• Roy, A. (1998b). Traditional Trade. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey Bamar.
 42
Specimen Format for Citing
Different Types of References

Journal Article

• Barry, H. (1996). Cross-cultural research

with matched pairs of societies. Journal of
Social Psychology, 79, 25-33.
• Jeanquart, S., & Peluchette, J. (1997).
Diversity in the workforce and
management models, Journal of Social
Work Studies, 43, 72-85.
 43
Specimen Format for Citing
Different Types of References

Conference proceedings
Publication
• Yeshwant, M. (1998). Revised thinking on Indian
philosophy and religion. In S. Pennathur (Ed.),
Proceedings of the Ninth International
Conference on Religion, (pp. 100-107). Bihar,
India: Bihar University.
 44
Specimen Format for Citing
Different Types of References

Doctoral/Master Dissertations

• Kiren, R.S. (1997). Medical advances and

quality of life. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, Omaha State University.
 45
Specimen Format for Citing
Different Types of References

Paper Presentation at Conference

• Bajaj, L. S. (1996, March 13). Practical tips for

efficient work management. Paper presented at
the annual meeting of Enterpreneurs, San Jose,
CA.
 46
Specimen Format for Citing
Different Types of References

Unpublished Manuscript

• Pringle, P. S. (1991). Training and development

in the 90s'. Unpublished manuscript, Southern
Illinois University, Diamondale, IL.
 47
Specimen Format for Citing
Different Types of References

Newspaper Article
• The new GM pact. ( 1998, July 28). Concord
Tribune, p.1.
Referencing Electronic Sources
• Author, I. (1998). Technology and immediacy of
information [On-line] Available
http://www.bnet.act.com
 48
Examples of the Referencing In the Literature
Review Section:

• When a work is authored by two individuals,

always cite both names every time the reference
occurs in the text.
• When a work has more than two authors but
fewer than six authors, cite all authors the first
time the reference occurs, and subsequently
include only the surname of the first author
followed by "et al." as the example in the next
slide:
 49
Examples of the Referencing In the Literature
Review Section:

• Sekaran, U., Martin, T., Trafton, N., and Osborn,

R.N., (1980) found…….(first citation).

• Sekaran et al. (1980) found……

….
(subsequent citation).
 50
Examples of the Referencing In the Literature
Review Section:

• When a work is authored by six or more

individuals, cite only the surname of the first
author followed by et al. and the year for the first
and subsequent citations.
• Join the names in a multiple-author citation in
running text by the word and. In parenthetical
material, in tables, and in the reference list, join
the names by an ampersand (&). Examples are in
next slide
 51
Examples of the Referencing In the Literature
Review Section:

• As Tucker and Snell (1989) pointed

out…..
• As has been pointed out (Tucker &
Snell, 1989),…….
 52
Examples of the Referencing In the Literature
Review Section:

• When a work's author is designated as

"Anonymous", cite in text, the word
Anonymous followed by a comma and the date:
(Anonymous, 1979). In the reference list, an
anonymous work is alphabetized by the word
Anonymous.
 53
Examples of the Referencing In the Literature
Review Section:

• When the same author has several works

published in the same year, cite them in the
same order as they occur in the reference
list, with the in press citations coming last.
For example:
• Research on the mental health of dual-
career family members (Sekaran, 1985a,
1985b, 1985c, 1999, in press) indicates…
 54
Examples of the Referencing In the Literature
Review Section:

• When more than one author has to be cited in

the text, these should be in the alphabetical
order of the first author's surname, and the
citations should be separated by semicolons
as the example below:
• In the job design literature (Aldag &
Brief, 1976; Alderfer, 1977; Beatty,
1982; Jeanquart, 1998),…
 55
Quotations in Text

• Quotations should be given exactly as they

appear in the source. The original wording,
punctuation, spelling, and italics must be
preserved.
 56
Quotations in Text

• The citation of the source of a direct quotation

should always include the page number(s) as
well as reference
 57
Quotations in Text

• Use three ellipsis points (…) to indicate that

you have omitted material from the original
source.
 58
Quotations in the Text

If the quotation is of more than 40 words, set in a

free-standing style starting on a new line and
indenting the left margin a further five spaces.
Example:
• In trying to differentiate dual-earner and dual –career
families, Sekaran (1986) states:

Various terms are used to refer to dual-earner

families: dual-worker families, two-paycheck
families, dual-income families, two-job families,
and so on. Spouses in dual-earner families may
both hold jobs, or one of the partners may hold a
job while the other pursues a career…
 59
Quotations in the Text

• If you intend publishing an article in which you

have quoted extensively from the copyrighted
work, it is important to seek written permission
from the owner of the copyright.
 60

The research proposal contains

the following:
• Key elements:
• Purpose of the study
• Specific problem to be investigated.
• Scope of the study
• Relevance of the study
• Research design:
• Sampling design
• Data collection methods
• Data analysis
• Time frame
• Budget
• Selected Bibliography
 61

Example

• While Chrysler’s minivans, pickups, and sports

utilities take a big share at the truck market, its
cars trail behind those of General Motors, Ford,
Honda, and Toyota. Quality problems include,
among other things water leaks and defective
parts
( Business Week, No.10, 2007).
 62
Example-cont.

1. Identify the broad problem area.

2. Define the problem?
3. Explain how you would proceed further.
 63

Answers

1. The broad problem is that the Chrysler cars

are lagging in market share.
2. The problem statement: How can the market
share of Chrysler cars be improved?
 64

answers

3. It is best to interview the users of GM, Ford,

Honda, and Toyota car users and obtain from
them their reaction – both positive and negative-
to the cars they use, and why they prefer them.
• Similar reactions from the users of Chrysler cars
should also be gathered. One should proceed
further based on the analysis of these responses.
 65

1.Bolger, Nial (2006). The Effect of Research on

Productivity. Management Journal, 69(5): 20-
35.
2.Girdano, Daniel A.; George S. Everly; and
Dorothy E. Dusek (2001). Controlling
Productivity, Applied Economics, 2(1): 15-30.
3. Jordan Investment Board (2000). Investing
in Jordan. www.jordaninvestment.com.
 66

Practice projects

• Do the project assigned below,

following the step-by-step process
outlined:
1. Compile a bibliography on any
one of the following topics, or
any other topic of interest to
you
 67

Practice projects

2. From this bibliography, select 10 references

that include books, periodicals, and
newspaper items.
3. Based on these 10 articles, write a literature
review using the citation forms as described
in our lectures.
4. Formulate a problem statement.
 68

Visit the following websites

• Intel http://www.intel.com
• Microsoft http://www.microsoft.com

write a paragraph on each of these

companies.
 69

The Research Process

Topics Discussed (cont.)
The Theoretical Framework and Its Five Basic
Features.
Hypothesis Development
• Definition
• If-Then Statements
• Directional and Nondirectional Hypothesis
• Null and Alternate Hypothesis
Managerial Implication
 70

Chapter Objectives

• Identify and label variables associated with any

situation.
• Trace and establish the links among the
variables and evolve a theoretical framework.
• Develop a set of hypotheses to be tested and
state them in the null and the alternate.
• Apply what has been learned to a research
project.
 71
The research Process For Applied
and Basic Research
 72
The Need for a Theoretical Framework

• a conceptual model of how one theorizes or makes logical sense

of the relationships among the several factors that have been
identified as important to the problem.
• discuss the interrelationships among the variables that are
deemed to be integral to the dynamics of the situation being
investigated.
• helps us postulate or hypothesizes and test certain relationships
and thus to improve our understanding of the dynamics of the
situation.
• testable hypotheses can be developed to examine whether the
theory formulated is valid or not..
 73
Variables

A variable is anything that can take on differing or

varying values. The values can differ at various
times for the same object or person, or at the
same time for different objects or persons.
• Type of variables:
• The dependent variable. (Ex 4.1 -4.2 Pg 71)
• The independent variable (also known as the
predictor variable) (Ex 4.3- 4.4 Pg 73)
• The moderating variables. (Ex 4.5 -4.6 Pg 77)
• The intervening variables.
Variables can be discrete or continuous
 7
4
Dependent • is the variable of primary interest
Variable to the researcher. The
researcher’s goal is to
understand and describe the
dependent variable, or to explain
its variability, or predict it.
• through the analysis of the
dependent variable, it is possible
to find answers or solutions to the
problem.

• It is possible to have more than

one dependent variable in a
study.
 75

Independent Variable
• is one that influences the dependent variable
in either a positive or negative way.
• when the independent variable is present,
the dependent variable is also present,
• each unit of increase in the independent
variable, there is an increase or decrease in
the dependent variable also.
• the variance in the dependent variable is
accounted for by the independent variable. .
 Dependent and Independent
Variable

Availability of reference
manual No of Rejects

Ind. V Dep. Var.

 77

Moderating Variable

• is one that has a strong contingent effect on the

independent-dependent variable relationship.
• the presence of a third variable (the moderating
variable) modifies the original relationship between the
independent and the dependent variables.
 Moderating Variable

Availability of reference No of Rejects

manual

Ind. V Dep. Var.

Interest and
Inclination

M.V.
 79

Intervening Variable
• is one that surfaces between the time the independent variables start
operating to influence the dependent variable and the time their impact
is felt on it.
• there is a temporal quality or time dimension to the intervening
variable.
• The intervening variable surfaces as a function of the independent
variable(s) operating in any situation.
• helps to conceptualize and explain the influence of the independent
variable(s) on the dependent variable.
 Intervening Variable

Creative Organizational
Workforce diversity effectiveness
Synergy

Ind. V Int. V. Dep. Var.

Managerial
expertise

M.V.
 81

\ Theoretical Framework
is the foundation on which the entire research project is based.
It is a logically developed, described, and elaborated network of
associations among the variables deemed relevant to the
problem situation
There are five basic features that should be incorporated in
any theoretical framework:
1. The variables considered relevant to the study should be
clearly identified and labeled in the discussions.
2. The discussions should state how two or more variables
are related to one another.
3. If the nature and direction of the relationships can be
theorized on the basis of the findings of previous
research, then there should be an indication in the
discussions.
4. There should be a clear explanation of why we would
expect these relationships to exist.
5. A schematic diagram of the of the theoretical framework
should be given so that the reader can see and easily
comprehend the theorized relationships.
 82

Delta Airlines Example

With airline deregulation, there were price wars among

the airlines that cut costs in different ways. According
to reports, Delta Airlines faced charges air-safety
violations when there were several near collisions in
midair, and one accident that resulted in 137 deaths in
1987. Four important factors that seem to have
influenced these are poor communication among the
cockpit crew members themselves, poor coordination
between ground staff and cockpit crew, minimal
training given to the cockpit crew, and
management philosophy that encouraged
decentralized structure. The following is the
conceptual framework to show if these factors did
indeed contribute to the safety violations.
 83

Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Sekaran/RESEARCH 4E FIGURE 5.8
 84

Hypotheses Development

1. To test whether the relationships

hold true.
2. Formulating such testable
statements is called hypotheses
development.
 8
5
Definition A hypothesis can be defined as
of a logically conjectured
Hypothesi relationship between two or
s more variables expressed in
the form of a testable
statement. Relationships are
conjectured on the basis of the
network of associations
established in the theoretical
framework formulated for the
research study.
 8
6
Statement • If – Then statements:
of A hypothesis can also test
Hypotheses whether there are differences
: Formats between two groups (or among
several groups) with respect to
any variable or variables. To
examine whether or not the
conjectured relationships or
differences exist, these
hypotheses can be set either as
propositions or in the form of if-
then statements.
Example: If Employees who are
more healthy, then they will take
sick leave less frequently.
 8
7
• If, in stating the relationship
Directional between two variables or
Hypotheses comparing two groups, terms
such as positive, negative, more
than, less than, and the like are
used, then these hypotheses are
directional because the
direction of the relationship
between the variables is
indicated.
Example: The greater the stress
experienced in the job, the lower
the job satisfaction of employee
Example: Women are more
motivated than men
 8
8
Non- • Non-directional hypotheses are
directional formulated either because the
relationships or differences have
Hypotheses never been previously explored and
hence there is no basis for indicating
the direction, or because there have
been conflicting findings in previous
research studies on the variable.
Example: There is a relationship
between age and job satisfaction.
Example: There is a difference
between the work ethic values of
American and Asian employees.
 • The null hypothesis is a 8
proposition that states a 9
definitive, exact relationship
Null and
Alternate between two variables. That is, it
Hypotheses states that the population
correlation between two variables
is equal to zero or that the
difference in the means of two
groups in the population is equal
to zero (or some definite
number).
• The Alternate hypothesis,
which is the opposite of the null,
is a statement expressing a
relationship between two
variables or indicating differences
 9
• The steps to be followed in 0
hypothesis testing are:
Hypothesi 1. State the null and the
s Testing alternate hypotheses.
2. Choose the appropriate
statistical test depending on
whether the data collected are
parametric or nonparametric.
3. Determine the level of
significance desired.
4. See if the output results from
computer analysis indicate
that the significance level is
met.
5. When the resultant value is
larger than the critical value,
the null hypothesis is rejected,
and the alternate accepted.
 9
1
Hypothesi Hypotheses can also be tested with
qualitative data. For example, a
s Testing researcher has developed a
With theoretical framework, that unethical
Qualitative practices by employees are a
Research: function of their inability to
discriminate between right and
Negative wrong(1), or due to a dire need for
Case money(2), or the organization’s
Analysis indifference to such practices. To test
the hypothesis that these three
factors are the primary ones that
influence unethical practices. When
even a single case does not support
the hypothesis, the researcher would
refute it, and the theory would be
revised.
 92

Timely Morale of
Working condition employee
correction

Ind. V Int. V.
Dep. Var.

Supplemental
income

M.V.