Unit 1 (Contd ..

Continuity Equation in one

dimension
Bernoulli’s Equation
Venturimeters
Orifice meters
Continuity Equation in one
dimension
What is continuity
equation?

 The equation based on

the principle of
conservation of Mass is
called Continuity
Equation.

 This says -- For a fluid

flowing through the
ρ A v = constant
pipe at all cross sections
, the quantity of fluid
per second is constant
Why continuity Equation ?
It is a powerful tool for Analyzing & understanding
various physical phenomena from fluid flow to
electrical currents

How it helps?
1.Conservation of mass :
 It ensures that mass is conserved within a closed system-
this means the amount of fluid entering a system is
equal to the amount leaving it

2.Fluid flow rates :

 With help of continuity equation we can calculate --Fluid
flow rates , velocities and densities at different points in
a system

3.Pipe flow pressure:

 It helps to determine pressure drops and flow rates in
pipes - which are most essential for designing and
optimizing the piping system
How it helps contd
4.Fluid dynamics problems :
 It is used to solve problems involving fluid flow such as
calculating velocities and pressure of fluids in various
scenarios

5. Boundary conditions :
 It helps to establish boundary condition for fluid flow
problems , ensuring accurate solutions

6.Turbulence and mixing :

 It helps to understand “ Turbulent flows & Mixing
processes”, which are crucial in chemical engineering and
environmental fluid mechanics
7.Ocean and Atmospheric currents
 It is applied in Oceanography and meteorology to study “
Ocean current and Circulation pattern”
How it helps for Researchers and Engineers to
better understand & Predict fluid behaviour for
innovative works like the fields given below

Pipe flow and plumbing system( Ships)

Aero dynamics and aerospace

Engineering.

Chemical processing and Mixing.

Oceanographic and climate modeling

Hydraulic system and Engineering

 Principles of continuity
Equation
It states that the
Total volume of the fluid entering in to the
pipe
=
Sum of the total volume leaving the pipe and

Volume of the fluid held back inside the pipe

 Continuity equation
 Let V1 average velocity at cross section 1-1 and
 ρ1 density at 1-1
2
 A1 Area of pipe section at 1-1
1
 Let V2, ρ2, A2 are corresponding value @2-2
Fluid flowing
Direction of flow through a pipe

The rate of flow at 1-1 = ρ1

A1 V1 1
2
The rate of low at 2-2= ρ2
According
A2 V2 to law of conservation of mass
Rate of law at section 1-1 = Rate of flow at section 2-2
or
ρ1 A1 V1= = ρ2 A2 V2

This is called Continuity Equation and applicable to both Compressible and

Incompressibel fluids

For incompressible fluid ρ1= ρ2 . Then the equation is

 Example

 With the details as given in the diagram

 a) find the discharge through the pipe
2
 b)Velocity at section2
1

D1 =10cm D2 =15cm

 Solution
V1= 5 m/s
 A1= πD1²/4 = 0.007854 m²
 A2 = πD2²/4 = 0.01767m²
³/
Therefore Discharge Q = A1V1 = 0.007854 x 5= 0.03927 m s

We know A1v1= A 2 V2 Hence V2 = A1v1/ A2 = (0.007854/0.01767) x 5

= 2.22 m/s
Numerical Prob1:
A 30 cm dia pipe carrying water gets in to 2 pipes of diameters 20 & 15 cm respectively. If the
average velocity in the 30 cm Ø pipe is 2.5 m/s, find the discharge in this pipe.
Also determine the velocity in 15 cm pipe dia if the average velocity in 20 cm dia is 2. m/s

2 2= 20c
D
m /
2= 2m
V
D1=30c s
m
V1=2.5
3
m/s 1 D3=
15c
m
Solution V3=
?
First Find A1, A2 and A3
Let Q1,Q2qnd Q3 are the discharges in pipes 1, 2and 3
We know Q1= Q2+Q3 – Equation (i)
Q1= A1V1= 0.07068 x2.5= 0.1767m³/s
Q2= A2V2= 0.0314 x2.0 = 0.0628m³/s
Substituting the value of Q1 and Q2 in equation (i)
0.1767= 0.0628+Q3 and Q3= 0.1139 m³/s But Q3 =A3 xV3 ie, 0.1139=0.01767 x V3

Therefore V3= 0.1139/ 0.0167 =6.44 m/s

Answer V3= 6.4m/s

Prob 2
A 25 cm diameter pipe carries oil of sp gr 0.9 at a velocity of 3m/s. At another section the

diameter is 20 cm. Find the velocity of this section and also the mass rate of flow of oil

 Solution
 D1=25 cm , Then A1= 0.049 m². D2= 20 cm , then A2= 0.0314m²
 Required V2 & Mass rate of flow of oil

Applying continuity equation A1V1=A2V2 we get 0.049 x3.0=

0.0314 xV2

V2= 0.049x3.0/0.0314 = 4.68 m/s Ans

Mass rate of flow : Mass density x Q = ρ xA1xV1

Sp gr of oil = Density of oil and Density of oil = Sp

gr of oil x density of water
Density of water
= 0.9x1000=900 kg/m³

Therefore Mass flow rate of oil = 900x0.049x3.0 = 132.23 kg/s

 Exercise
 Water flows through a horizontal pipe with a dia of 0.1
m. At point A , the velocity is 2m/s and the density is
1000kg/m³.
 At point B , 10 m downstream, the diameter is
0.05m.
 Calculate the velocity at point B
A1= 0.0079m2
A2= 0.00196m2
V2= A1v1/A2

 Answer : 8.04m/s
Bernoulli’s Equation
 Before going to Bernoulli’s Equation Let us see what is Bernoulli’s Principles

 Bernoulli’s principle states that “An increase in the velocity (the speed
of a
fluid) occurs simultaneously and must be accompanied by a decrease in pressure )
This means the pressure decreased is balanced by the increase in velocity
General assumption while deriving the Bernoulli’s Equation (principle) :
i) Fluid is ideal ie.., viscosity is zero
ii) Fluid is Steady
iii) Fluid is incompressible
iv) Fluid is Ir-rotational

 When fluid is steady, the sum of energy ( Pressure energy +Kinetic Energy and
Potential energy) forms in a fluid will remain the same at all points of that
streamline.

 While all the energy remains constant, any increase in the fluid velocity will increase
the kinetic energy or dynamic pressure.

 This will happen with a decrease in Potential energy ( Static pressure and Internal energy )
Therefore Bernoulli’s equation is considered - A relation between the 1) Pressure energy ,
2) Kinetic energy and 3) potential energy
 Area where Bernoulli’s equation NOT
Applicable
1 The Bernoulli theorem is not applicable in a flow section like
machines (e.g., fan or turbine or pump), because these
machines can damage the streamlines and make energy
interactions with the fluid. So in these cases, the energy
equation should be used instead of Bernoulli equation.

 2. Where there is a significant temperature change flow sections like

cooling or heating sections, because the gas density is inversely
proportional to the temperature.

 3.Where frictional effects are NOT Negligible or not accepted.

 Example : Sudden expansion

 Heating section , Valve , Fan , Narrow long tube etc.,
 Bernoulli’s Equation derivation
 We will consider that we have a pipe with a varying height and diameter
through which an incompressible fluid is flowing. The relationship
between the areas of cross-sections A, pressure p the speed of the flow
v, and the height h at two different points 1 and 2 is described in the
following figure:

Assumptions:
 The incompressible
fluid density remains
constant at both
points.

 The fluid energy is

conserved because
there are no viscous
forces in the fluid.
 So, the work done on the fluid is given as:
dW = F1dx1 – F2dx2
dW = p1A1dx1 – p2A2dx2
dW = p1dv – p2dv = (p1 – p2)dv

We know that the work done on the fluid was due to

the conservation of change in both the kinetic
energy and gravitational potential energy

The change in kinetic energy of the fluid is given as:

The change in potential energy is given as:

dU = m2gy2 – m1gy1 = ρdvg(y2 – y1)

Then, the energy equation is given as: dW = dK + dU

And finally by rearranging the above equation, we get

p +1/2 ρ v1² +ρgy1 = p2 +1/2 ρ v2² +ρgy
1 2

p+1/2 ρ v² +ρgy = Constant

Bernoulli’s Equation
 Bernoulli’s equation formula is a relation between pressure,
kinetic energy, and gravitational potential energy of a fluid in a
container.
 The density of the incompressible fluid remains constant at both points.
 The energy of the fluid is conserved as there are no viscous forces in the fluid.
 Therefore, the work done on the fluid is given as:
 dW = F1dx1 – F2dx2

 dW = p1A1dx1 – p2A2dx2

 dW = p1dv – p2dv = (p1 – p2)dv

 We know that the work done on the fluid was due to the conservation of change in
gravitational potential energy and change in kinetic energy. The change in kinetic
energy of the fluid is given as:
 dK= ½ m2v2² - ½ m1v1² =½ ρdv(v2² -v1²)
 The change in potential energy is given as:
 dU = m2gy2 – m1gy1 = ρdvg(y2 – y1)
 Therefore, the energy equation is given as:
 dW = dK + dU
 (p1-p2)dV = ½ ρdv (v2² -v1²) = ρdvg(y2-y1)
 P1-p2 = ½ ρ(v2² -v1²) + ρg(y2-y1)


Re arranging we get p +1/2 ρ v1² +ρgy1
1 = p2 + 1/2 ρ v2² +ρgy2 This is Bernoulli’s
equation
 We conclude here
 Bernoulli’s Principle formula
p +1/2 ρv² +ρgy = Constant

Therefore Bernoulli’s equation gives great insight into the balance
between pressure, velocity and elevation.
Equation
 p/ρ +gZ +v²/2 = Constant

or p/ρg + z + v²/2g = Constant (by dividing by g)

or p/ρg +v²/2g + z =Constant

where p/ρg =Pressure energy /unit weight of fluid or Pressure head

v²/2g = Kinetic energy per unit weight or Kinetic head
z= potential energy per unit or Potential Head
Important Notes on Bernoulli’s Equation

 It explains how the speed of fluid affects the pressure

of the fluid, and is known as Bernoulli’s effect or
when a fluid flows through a region where the speed
increases, the pressure will decrease.
Example : Aeroplane wings help to lift the plane.

 It has a qualitative behaviour that lowers the pressure in the

region with high velocities.

 Head loss in Bernoulli’s equation : It represents the reduction in

the total pressure, which is the sum of the velocity head, pressure
head, and the elevation head of the fluid flowing through the hydraulic
system.
Numerical example 1
 Water is flowing through a pipe of 5 cm diameter under
a pressure of 29.43 N/cm² (gauge) and with mean
velocity of 20 m/s.
 Find the total head or total energy per unit weight of the water a cross section
which is 5 m above the datum line.
 Given : Dia =5cm=0.5m , p= 29.43 N/cm² = 29.43 x 10^4 N/m²
 Total head = Pressure head + kinetic head +datum head

 Pr Head= p/ρg =29.43x 10^4

 1000x9.81 =30m

 Kinetic head = v²/2g = 2x2

2x9.81 = 0.204 m
Hence Total head = 30+ 0.204 + 5 = 35.204 m
 Example2
 A pipe through which water is flowing, is having
diameters 20 cm and 10 cm at the cross sections 1
and 2 resply.

The velocity of water at section 1 is given as 4.m/s

Find the Velocity of water at sections 1 & 2 and also the

rate of discharge
Solution : In soft copy
 Application of Bernoulli’s equation
 The Bernoulli equation is applied to all incompressible fluid flow
problems.
 The Bernoulli equation can be applied to devices such as the orifice
meter, Venturi meter , and Pitot tube and its applications for
measuring flow in open channels and inside tubes.
 Venturimeter :Venturi meter is a device that is based on Bernoulli’s principle
and used to determine the rate of flow through a pipe.
 It works by measuring the pressure drop across a section near the pipe.
 For an incompressible fluid, reducing the diameter will increase the fluid
flow velocity.
 Note: Bernoulli’s principle states that there must be a pressure drop in the
region of the reduced diameter. This phenomenon is known as the Venturi
effect.
 Venturimeter
 It is a device used to measure the rate of flow through a pipe.
 The velocity increases in the converging part based on
continuity equation and pressure increases based on the
Bernoulli’s equation.

 3 types of venturimeters
 Horizontal Venturi Meter:

In this venturimeter, the kinetic energy is the highest and

the potential energy is the lowest
 Vertical Venturi Meter:

In this, the potential energy is maximum and the kinetic energy

is minimum
 Inclined Venturi Meter:

It is a venturi meter that is inserted in an inclined pipeline in a

vertical plane.
It helps in measuring the flow rate through the pipe.
A Venturi Meter contains two tubes connected by a pipe at narrow
ends. The venturi-meter is positioned horizontally and the liquid enters
end 1 and passes through end 2.
Let
p1 is the pressure in the inlet section
p2 is the pressure in the throat section
v1 is the velocity of the fluid passing through the inlet section
v2 is the velocity of the fluid passing through the throat section
ρ is the density of the liquid
a1 and a2 be the area of the cross-section at the inlet section and throat
section respectively.
d1 and d2

Parts of
Venturimeter
A Venturi Meter has a number of applications in the practical world such
as:
 It is used to determine the flow of chemicals in pipelines.

 Venturimeter can determine the flow rate of the fluid discharged

through the pipe of the device.

 It is used a lot in the waste treatment process in which large

diameter pipes are used.

 It is used in the industrial sector to determine the pressure and

the quantity of gas and liquid that flows inside the pipe.

 Venturimeter is also used in the medical sector to measure the

rate of flow of blood in arteries.

 Recovery of high pressure is carried out by venturi meters.

Advantages of a Venturi Meter
 Some major advantages of a Venturi meter are given below:

 They have high accuracy over wide flow ranges.

 They are easy to operate.

 They consume less energy and power.

 Venturimeters have high reproducibility.

 The coefficient of discharge is high.

 They can be used for compressible and incompressible fluid.

 Venturi meters are widely used for a high flow rate or

discharge.
Disadvantages of a Venturi Meter
Some of the disadvantages of a venturi meter are:

 High installation cost

 Not usable for pipes with a small diameter like

76.2 mm

 They are non-linear ( no smooth progress from one stage to

another )

 Expensive and slightly bulky

Static pressure – Dynamic pressure and Total pressure
Deriving an Equation for Discharge through
Venturimeter

P1​+ρgh1​+1/2ρv1²​=P2​+ρgh²​+1/2ρv2²​
Venturi effect

 The Venturi effect is the reduction in fluid

pressure that results when a moving fluid
speeds up as it flows through a constricted
section of a pipe.

 The Venturi effect is named after its discoverer,

the 18th-century Italian physicist Giovanni
Battista Venturi.
 Why we need Venturi Effect ?
Numerical Problems with Venturimeter
VM :1
A horizontal Venturimeter with inlet and throat
diameters 30 cm and 15 cm respectively is used to
measure the flow of water .

The reading of the differential manometer connected to

the inlet and the throat is 20 cm of mercury.

Determine the rate of flow . Take Cd = 0.98 [Cd is Co efficient of

venturi and is < 1]
Numerical Problems with Venturimeter
VM : 2
An oil of specific gravity 0.8 is flowing through a
venturimeter having the inlet dia 20 cm and throat 10 cm.

The oil- mercury differential manometer shows a reading

of 25 cm

Calculate the discharge of the oil through the horizontal

venturimeter

.(Take Cd = 0.98)
Numerical Problems with Venturimeter
VM : 3
 A horizontal venturimeter with inlet dia 20 cm and throt
dia 10 cm is used to measure the flow of oil specific
gravity 0.8

 The discharge of the oil through Venturimeter is 60

litres/s
Find the reading of the oil- mercury differential
manometer Cd=0.98
Numerical Problems with Venturimeter
VM : 4
 A horizontal venturimeter with inlet dia 20 cm and
throat dia 10 cm is used to measure the flow of water

The pressure at inlet is 17.658N/cm² and the vacuum

pressure at the throat is 30 cm of mercury.

Find the discharge of the water through Venturi meter .

Cd=0.98
Orifice meter or Orifice plate
 It is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of
a fluid through a pipe.
 Works on the same principle as that of Venturimeter

 It is a flat circular plate having a circular sharp

edged hole called “ORIFICE” .
 The orifice diameter is kept normally 0.5 times the dia of
pipe But it may vary from 0.4 to 0.8 also
Orifice meters also called Orifice Plate
Assembly of Flanges
Orifice plate
Types of orifice plates
  The most commonly used orifice plate for flow
Concentric Orifice Plate measurement is the square-edged, concentric
bore orifice.

 With this design, the orifice bore is concentric

with the internal walls of the pipe in which it is
mounted, and the downstream bore edge is
beveled to limit the plate edge thickness. This
makes the plates uni-directional, and to aid
installation it is common for the paddle to
indicate which side is the upstream side.

 A concentric orifice has the lowest degree of

uncertainty of all types of orifice plate.

 This design can be used on most processes

including clean liquids, gases and steam flow.
  Eccentric orifice plates are plates with the
Eccentric Orifice plate orifice off-center, or in other words,
eccentric to the centre line of the pipe.

 The lower edge of the orifice bore is

usually located a distance of 2% of the
pipe internal diameter, above the pipe
wall.

 This design allows solids or slurries to

easily pass through the plate preventing in
inaccuracies caused by partial upstream
blockages.

 An eccentric orifice has a higher degree of

uncertainty than that of a concentric
orifice.
Segmental orifice plate
 The hole in a segmental orifice plate is not
completely circular, but a segment of a circle.

 The lower edge of the segment is usually

located a distance of 2% of the pipe internal
diameter, above the pipe wall.

 This design allows solids or slurries to easily

pass through the plate; a greater amount
than the eccentric orifice plate

 A
segmental orifice is considerably more
expensive than the eccentric orifice due
to the more complex manufacturing
required, and they have a higher degree
of uncertainty compared to both concentric
Eccentric and segmental
andorifice plates
eccentric are used for
orifice plates.
fluids that are dirty and contain sediments.
Square edge or Quadrant edge bore type
 The difference between a square edge orifice plate and a quadrant
edge orifice plate is in the proximity of the specified bore to the
upstream face, as shown in the figure.

 On a square edge plate the measuring bore is at 90 degrees to the

upstream face.

 On a quadrant edge plate the inlet edge is rounded to the shape

of a quarter circle (hence the name quadrant edge), and the
throat of the bore is a small distance from the upstream face.

 Why use a Quadrant Edge Plate?

 Quadrant edge orifice plates are used for viscous

fluids such as heavy crude oils, syrups, and
slurries with Reynolds Numbers between 5,000
and 100,000.

 For Reynolds numbers below 5,000 the quadrant

edge is replaced by a conical entrance.
 Discharge through Orifice
plate

Formula Concept is same as that of

Venturimeter
and is given by

Q= Cd x aoa1√ 2gh
√ a1² - ao²

Where ao is the area of the orifice and a1 is the area of the pipe at section 1
 Numerical example with Orifice meter

 OM 1
 An orifice meter with orifice diameter 10cm is
inserted in a pipe of 20 cm diameter . The
pressure gauges fitted upstream and downstream
of the orifice meter gives readings of
19.62N/cm² and 9.81N/cm² respectively .The
coefficient of discharge for the orifice meter is given as 0.6 .
 Find the discharge of the water through the pipe.
 Numerical example with Orifice meter

 OM 2
 An orifice meter with orifice diameter 15cm is
inserted in a pipe of 30 cm diameter . The
pressure difference measured by a mercury
differential manometer on the two sides of the
orifice meter gives a reading of 50 cm mercury
.
 Find the rate of flow of oil of sp gr 0.9 when the coefficient
of discharge for the orifice meter is given as 0.64
FLOW THROUGH


PIPES
Flow through Pipes
 Flow through pipes is a fundamental concept in fluid mechanics,
which deals with the movement of fluids through closed
conduits or channels. Here's an overview:

Types of Flow
 Laminar Flow: Smooth, continuous flow with no turbulence.
 Turbulent Flow: Chaotic, irregular flow with eddies and
whirlpools.
 Transient Flow: Temporary flow that changes over time.

Key Factors
 Pressure: Driving force behind fluid flow.
 Velocity: Speed of fluid flow.
 Viscosity: Measure of fluid's resistance to flow.
 Pipe Diameter: Affects flow rate and pressure drop.
 Pipe Length: Affects pressure drop and flow rate.
 Surface Roughness: Affects friction and pressure drop.
Flow through Pipes
Equations
Continuity Equation: Mass flow rate remains constant.
Bernoulli's Equation: Relates pressure, velocity, and
elevation.
Darcy-Weisbach Equation: Calculates pressure drop
due to friction.

Applications

Water Supply Systems

Oil and Gas Pipelines
HVAC Systems
Chemical Processing
Power Generation
Types of flow :
Laminar Flow: Fluid particles move in
 well defined path or stream line
 Stream lines are straight
 Stream lines are parallel Low velocity, High viscous

Turbulent flow : Fluid particles move in

• A zig -zag way
• Cross current
• Forms eddy current making high energy losses

How to determine the flow?

By a non dimensional Number = ρVD
µ
where D – dia of pipe, V Mean velocity of flow µ kinematic viscosity
Laminar,Transitional and Turbulent flow
Laminar,

Turbulent flow -
Hagen-Poiseuille Equation
The Hagen-Poiseuille equation is a fundamental equation in fluid dynamics that describes the
flow of viscous fluids through a circular pipe. It's named after German physicist Gotthilf Hagen
and French physicist Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille, who independently developed the equation
in the 19th century.
Equation:
Q = (π × ΔP × R^4) / (8 × ɳ × L)

Where:
Q is the volumetric flow rate , ΔP is the pressure difference between the two ends of the pipe
R is the radius of the pipe
ɳ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid
L is the length of the pipe

But with Assumptions:

Laminar flow (smooth, continuous flow)
Incompressible fluid
Constant viscosity
Circular pipe
Steady flow

Applications:
Pipe flow (water, oil, gas)
Blood flow (arteries, veins)
Fluid transport systems
 Flow through pipes – Why it is
important to study ?

1 is not Equal
to 2

u t ₌ O
ut
p t2 pu
In 1)
( Due to various pipe
losses

Due to various factors viz –

Friction , change in flow direction,
Most common problem is Estimation of change in cross section, obstruction
pressure loss in side the pipes, bends etc.,
Losses of energy in Pipes

Energy
losses
Major energy losses Minor energy losses

Due to Due to
friction and calculated by a) Sudden expansion of type
a) Darcy Weisbach b) Sudden contraction of pipe
Formula c) Bend in pipe
b) Chezy’s formula d) Pipe fittings
e) Obstruction in pipe
What makes the losses?
1) Resistance to flow
 the internal roughness of the pipe wall can create local eddy
currents within the fluid adding a resistance to flow of the fluid.
Example :The fluid elements in the center of the pipe will move
at a higher speed than those closer to the wall
Therefore friction will occur between layers – This makes the pressure to drop and
this is called Frictional losses

Where the friction is more ?

Pipes with less smooth walls , Example : Concrete Cast Iron
Rougher the inner wall of pipe , more will be the pressure losses
Relation of Velocity with pressure losses
Velocity increases the pressure losses increase
Calculation of losses through
pipes
2) Chezy’s Equation
 Loss of energy (or
hf = f ’/ ρg x P/A x L x V²
head) due to FRICTION Where
hf = head loss due to friction
A= Area of cross section,
 Formula used is 1) V= Mean velocity
P = Wetted perimeter of pipe
1)Darcy –Weisbach Equation Velocity V= C√mi m = hydraulic mean
depth
Where m= always d/4 *
hf = 4fLV²/ 2gd and C= Chezy’s constant
Where hf is head loss due to friction C =√ ρg /f ’
f is coefficient of friction - which is a function of Reynolds hf /L = i where i is the loss of head per
Number = 16/ Re for Re less than 2000 (viscous flow) unit length
= 0.079/Re ¼ for Re varying from 4000 to 10^6 Therefore the loss of head due to friction can be
obtained if the velocity and C is known

* Hydraulic mean depth = A/P = Area

/perimeter
ie., πd²/4 / πd d/4
Worked Example :Head loss due to friction

Problem (HF 1)

Find the head loss due to friction in a pipe of diameter 300 mm

and length 50 m through which the water is flowing at a velocity
of 3m/s , by using
a) Darcy Formula
b) Chezy’s formula for which C= 60
c) Take ν (nu) – kinematic viscosity 0.01 stokes (1
stoke = 1 cm²/s)
Worked Example :Head loss due to friction

Problem (HF 2)
Find the dia of the pipe of length 2000m when the rate of flow of
water through the pipe is 200 litres/s and the head loss due to
friction is 4m Take the value of C =50 in Chezy’s formula
Worked Example :Head loss due to friction

Problem (HF 3)
A crude oil of kinematic viscosity0.4 stokes is flowing through a
pipe of diameter 300mm at the rate of 300 litres /s

Find the head lost due to friction for length of 50 m

Worked Example :Head loss due to friction

Problem (HF 4)

Calculate the discharge through a pipe of

diameter 200m when the difference of pressure
head between the two ends of the pipes 500 m
apart is of 4 m of water

Take the value of f =0.009 in the formula hf =

4flv²/2gd
Minor losses
Loss of energy due to change of velocity of the following ,
fluid in magnitude or direction is called MINOR LOSSES
 Loss due to Sudden enlargement

 Loss due to Sudden contraction

 Loss at the entrance of the pipe

 Loss at the exit of the pipe

 Obstruction in pipe

 Due to bend

 Due to various pipe fitting

Formula used to calculate the loss of head

Due to sudden expansion he = (V1-V2)² / 2g

Due to sudden contraction hc = 0.375 V2²/ 2g

{ In general hc = k V2² /2g} where k = [ 1/Cc-1 ]² Cc assumed to be = 0.62

If value of Cc is not given, then the head loss due to sudden contraction is 0.5 V2²/ 2g
that is hc = 0.5 V2²/ 2g
Head loss at inlet hi = 0.5V²/ 2g
Head loss at the exit ho = V²/ 2g