Information and Network security

Monika Nayak, Assistant Professor

Computer Science and Engineering Department
Outline
 Introduction
 Security Objectives
 OSI Security Architecture
 Security Attacks
 Security Services
 Security Mechanism
 Symmetric Cipher Model
 Cryptography
 Cryptanalysis and Attacks
 Substitution and Transposition Techniques
Introduction to Information & N/W Security
Information & Network Security
 What is Information ?
• The processed form of data or meaningful data is
called information. Basically, information is the message that is
being conveyed.
Data Process Information

 What is Security ?
1. Computer Security : Generic name for the collection of tools
designed to protect data.
2. Network and Internet Security : Measures to protect data
during their transmission over a collection of interconnected
networks.
Key Security Objectives
 Goal/Objectives of Security :
1. Confidentiality
2. Integrity
3. Availability
4. Authenticity
5. Accountability
Confidentiality
1. Confidentiality:
• Data confidentiality: Assure confidential information not made
available to unauthorized individuals.
Example : Individual files are locked and secured

Bob
Alice

Packet sniffing, illegal copying

Attacker
Confidentiality
• Privacy: Assure individuals can control what information related
to them is collected, stored, distributed.
• Privacy is the right of an individual to protect personal or
sensitive information.
Integrity
2. Integrity :
• Data integrity: Assure information and programs are changed
only in a authorized manner.

Message

Bob
Alice
Modifies the message, Message
or Inserts a new one.

How can Bob be sure that

message really comes
from Alice?

Attacker
Integrity
• System integrity: Assure system performs intended function.
Availability
3. Availability :
• Assure that systems work promptly and service is not denied to
authorized users.

www.amazon.com

User
Browser working Server down
Authenticity
4. Authenticity:
• The property of being genuine and being able to be verified
and trusted; confidence in the validity of a transmission, a
message, or message originator.
• This means verifying that each input arriving at the system
came from a trusted source.

Password + Verification = Access

Authenticity

Transfer Rs. 1,00,000

From A to C.
I am User A

User A
Bank

User C
Accountability
5. Accountability:
• The security goal that generates the requirement for actions of
an entity to be traced uniquely to that entity.
• This supports nonrepudiation(assurance that someone cannot
deny something).

Transfer Rs. 1,00,000

to Bank
User A

Bank
Impact of Security Breaches
 Effectiveness of primary operations are reduced
• Example: Hackers compromised exam question paper.
 Financial loss
• Example: The cost of repairing a company database once it’s
been compromised.
 Damage to assets
• Example: Hackers compromised Amazon Web Services account
and demanded a ransom. When the company declined, the
hacker started destroying their resources.
 Harm to individuals
• Example: Hackers compromised patience database and change
it.
OSI Security Architecture
 Systematic approach to define requirements for security and
approaches to satisfying those requirements
 The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) security architecture
focuses on Security Attacks, Mechanisms, and Services.
 Security Attack: Any action that compromises the security of
information owned by an organization.
 Security Mechanism: A process that is designed to detect,
prevent, or recover from a security attack.
 Security Service: A communication service that enhances the
security of the data processing systems and the information
transfers of an organization.
Security Attacks
Security Attacks
 A passive attack attempts to learn or make use of information from
the system but does not affect system resources.
1. Release of message contents
2. Traffic analysis
 Relatively hard to detect, but easier to prevent
 An active attack attempts to alter system resources or affect their
operation.
1. Masquerade
2. Replay
3. Modification of messages
4. Denial of service.
 Relatively hard to prevent, but easier to detect
1. Release of message contents (Passive Attack)

 A telephone conversation, an electronic mail message, and a

transferred file may contain sensitive or confidential information.
 We would like to prevent an opponent from learning the contents
of these transmissions.
 Attack on Confidentiality.
1. Masquerade Attack (Active Attack)

 A masquerade takes place when one entity pretends to be a different

entity.
 A masquerade attack is an attack that uses a fake identity to gain
unauthorized access to personal information.
 Attack on Authentication.
2. Traffic Analysis (Passive Attack)

 In such attacks, an attacker analyses the traffic and observes the

frequency and length of exchanged messages. He uses all this
information to predict the nature of communication.
 Studying the flow of "traffic" to find patterns of behaviour.
2. Replay Attack (Active Attack)

 Replay attack involves the passive capture of a data unit and its
subsequent retransmission to produce an unauthorized effect.
 Replay attack is to replay the message sent to a network by an
attacker, which was earlier sent by an authorized user.
3. Modification of messages Attack (Active Attack)

 Modification of messages simply means that some portion of a

legitimate message is altered, or that messages are delayed or
reordered, to produce an unauthorized effect.
 Attack on Integrity.
4. Denial of Service Attack (Active Attack)

 The denial of service attack prevents the normal use or

management of communications facilities.
 Sending large number of packets to block the server.
 Attack on Availability.
Security Services
Security Services (X.800)
X.800 standard defines a security service as a service that is provided
by a protocol layer of communicating open systems and that ensures
security of the systems or of data transfers.
 Security Services

Data
Authentication Access Control Data Integrity Non Repudiation
Confidentiality

Connection
Peer Entity Connection Non Repudiation
Integrity with
Authentication Confidentiality Origin
recovery

Connection
Data Origin Connection less Non Repudiation
Integrity with
Authentication Confidentiality Destination
out recovery

Selective Field
Selective Repeat
Connection
Confidentiality
Integrity

Traffic Flow Connection less

Confidentiality Integrity

Selective Field
Connection less
Integrity
Authentication
 Authentication is the assurance that the communicating entity is
the one that it claims to be.
1. Peer Entity Authentication: Used Who you are ?
in association with a logical (biometrics)
connection (TCP) to provide
confidence in the identity of the
entities connected. Physical
authentication
2. Data-Origin Authentication: In a where you are ?
connectionless (UDP) transfer,
provides assurance that the What you know ?
source of received data is as Password
claimed. One-time Password(OTP)
Access Control
 Access control is the prevention of unauthorized use of a resource
 This service controls who can have access to a resource, under
what conditions access can occur, and what those accessing the
resource are allowed to do.

User A

User B
Human resources Development
network network
 Security Services

Data
Authentication Access Control Data Integrity Non Repudiation
Confidentiality

Connection
Peer Entity Connection Non Repudiation
Integrity with
Authentication Confidentiality Origin
recovery

Connection
Data Origin Connection less Non Repudiation
Integrity with
Authentication Confidentiality Destination
out recovery

Selective Field
Selective Repeat
Connection
Confidentiality
Integrity

Traffic Flow Connection less

Confidentiality Integrity

Selective Field
Connection less
Integrity
Data Confidentiality
 Data confidentiality is the protection of data from unauthorized
disclosure.
1. Connection Confidentiality: The
protection of all user data on a
connection.
2. Connectionless Confidentiality: The
protection of all user data in a single
data block.
3. Selective-Field Confidentiality: The
confidentiality of selected fields
within the user data on a connection
or in a single data block.
4. Traffic-Flow Confidentiality: The
protection of the information that
might be derived from observation of
traffic flows.
 Security Services

Data
Authentication Access Control Data Integrity Non Repudiation
Confidentiality

Connection
Peer Entity Connection Non Repudiation
Integrity with
Authentication Confidentiality Origin
recovery

Connection
Data Origin Connection less Non Repudiation
Integrity with
Authentication Confidentiality Destination
out recovery

Selective Field
Selective Repeat
Connection
Confidentiality
Integrity

Traffic Flow Connection less

Confidentiality Integrity

Selective Field
Connection less
Integrity
Data Integrity
 Data integrity is the assurance that data received are exactly as
sent by an authorized entity (i.e., contain no modification,
insertion, deletion, or replay).

Channel

Alice Bob

Both are same

 Data Integrity (Cont…)
 Connection Integrity with Recovery: Provides integrity of all user
data on a connection and detects any modification, insertion,
deletion, or replay of any data with recovery attempted.
 Connection Integrity without Recovery: As above, but provides
only detection without recovery.
 Selective-Field Connection Integrity: Provides integrity of selected
fields within the user data and takes the form of determination of
whether the selected fields have been modified, inserted, deleted,
or replayed.
 Data Integrity (Cont…)
 Connectionless Integrity: Provides integrity of a single
connectionless data block and may take the form of detection of
data modification. Additionally, a limited form of replay detection
may be provided.
 Selective-Field Connectionless Integrity: Provides integrity of
selected fields within a single connectionless data block; takes the
form of determination of whether the selected fields have been
modified.
 Security Services

Data
Authentication Access Control Data Integrity Non Repudiation
Confidentiality

Connection
Peer Entity Connection Non Repudiation
Integrity with
Authentication Confidentiality Origin
recovery

Connection
Data Origin Connection less Non Repudiation
Integrity with
Authentication Confidentiality Destination
out recovery

Selective Field
Selective Repeat
Connection
Confidentiality
Integrity

Traffic Flow Connection less

Confidentiality Integrity

Selective Field
Connection less
Integrity
Non Repudiation
 Nonrepudiation is the assurance that someone cannot deny
something.
 Typically, nonrepudiation refers to the ability to ensure that a
communication cannot deny the authenticity of their signature on
a document or the sending of a message that they originated.

Transfer Rs. 1,00,000

to Bank
After few days
User A
I have never requested to
transfer Rs. 1,00,000
to Bank Bank
Non Repudiation (Cont…)
 Nonrepudiation-Origin: Proof that the message was sent by the
specified party.
 Nonrepudiation-Destination: Proof that the message was
received by the specified party.
Security Mechanisms
Security Mechanisms (X.800)
 Techniques designed to prevent, detect or recover from attacks
 No single mechanism can provide all services
 Common in most mechanisms: cryptographic techniques
 Specific security mechanisms: Integrated into the appropriate
protocol layer in order to provide some of the OSI security
services.
 Pervasive security mechanisms: Not integrated to any particular
OSI security service or protocol layer
Security Mechanism (Specific security)
 Encipherment: Hiding or covering data using mathematical
algorithms.
 Digital Signature: The sender can electronically sign the data and
the receiver can electronically verify the signature.
 Access Control: A variety of mechanisms that enforce access
rights to resources.
 Data Integrity: A variety of mechanisms used to assure the
integrity of a data unit or stream of data units.
Security Mechanism (Specific security)
 Authentication Exchange: Two entities exchange some messages
to prove their identity to each other.
 Traffic Padding: The insertion of bits into gaps in a data stream to
frustrate traffic analysis attempts.
 Routing Control: Selecting and continuously changing routes
between sender and receiver to prevent opponent(attacker) from
eavesdropping.
 Notarization: The use of a trusted third party to assure and
control the communication.
Model for Network Security
Trusted third party
(e.g., arbiter, distributer
of secret information)

Sender Recipient
Security -related Info. Security -related
Channel

Message

Message
Message

Message
Transformation Transformation

Secure
Secure

Secret Secret
Information Opponent Information
(Attacker)
Encryption and Decryption

Hello f7#er Hello

Sender Encryption Decryption Receiver
 Symmetric Cipher Model (Conventional Encryption)
Secret key shared by Secret key shared by
sender and recipient sender and recipient
K K
Transmitted
cipher text
Y = E(K, X)
X X
Plaintext Encryption Algorithm Decryption Algorithm Plaintext
input (e.g. AES) (reverse of encryption output
algorithm)
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Decryption
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Terminology
 Plaintext: original message
 Ciphertext: encrypted or coded message
 Encryption: convert from plaintext to ciphertext (enciphering)
 Decryption: restore the plaintext from ciphertext (deciphering)
 Key: information used in cipher known only to sender/receiver
 Cipher: a particular algorithm (cryptographic system)
 Cryptography: study of algorithms used for encryption
 Cryptanalysis: study of techniques used for decryption without
knowledge of plaintext
 Cryptology: areas of cryptography and cryptanalysis
Cryptography and Cryptanalysis
 Cryptography(Secret Writing) is the process of protecting
information by transforming it into a secure (unreadable) format.

Hello Cryptography $!dzx

 Cryptanalysis is the decryption and analysis of encrypted text.

Cryptanalysis uses mathematical formulas to search algorithm
vulnerabilities and break into cryptography.

$!dzx Cryptanalysis Hello

 An opponent, observing Y but not having access to K or X, may
attempt to recover X or K or both X and K.
 If the opponent is interested in only this particular message, then
he will focus to recover X by generating a plaintext estimate .
 Often, however, the opponent is interested in being able to read
future messages as well, in which case an attempt is made to
recover K by generating an estimate .
Requirements and Assumptions
 Requirements for secure use of symmetric encryption:
1. Strong encryption algorithm: Given the algorithm and cipher text,
an attacker cannot obtain key or plaintext.
2. Shared secret keys: sender and receiver both have shared a
secret key; no-one else knows the key(keep it secret).
 Assumptions:
 Cipher is known
 Secure channel to distribute keys
Cryptanalysis and Brute-Force Attack
 Objective of attacker: recover key (not just message)
 Approaches of attacker:
 Cryptanalysis: This type of attack exploits the characteristics of
the algorithm to attempt to derive a specific plaintext or to derive
the key being used.
 Brute-force attack: The attacker tries every possible key on a piece
of ciphertext until an intelligible translation into plaintext is
obtained.
 On average, half of all possible keys must be tried to achieve
success.
Attacks on Encrypted Messages
Type of Attack Known to cryptanalyst
Ciphertext Only Encryption algorithm, Ciphertext
Attacks on Encrypted Messages
Type of Attack Known to cryptanalyst
Known Plaintext Encryption algorithm, Ciphertext, One or more plaintext-
cipher text pairs formed with the secret key
Attacks on Encrypted Messages
Type of Attack Known to cryptanalyst
Chosen Plaintext Encryption algorithm, Ciphertext, Plaintext message chosen by
cryptanalyst
Attacks on Encrypted Messages
Type of Attack Known to cryptanalyst
Chosen Encryption algorithm, Ciphertext, Ciphertext chosen by
Ciphertext cryptanalyst, with its corresponding decrypted plaintext
generated with the secret key
Attacks on Encrypted Messages
Type of Attack Known to cryptanalyst
Chosen text Encryption algorithm, Ciphertext, Plaintext chosen by
cryptanalyst, with its corresponding ciphertext generated with
the secret key , Ciphertext chosen by cryptanalyst, with its
corresponding decrypted plaintext generated with the secret
key
Substitution Techniques
 A substitution technique is one in which the letters of plaintext are
replaced by other letters or by numbers or symbols.
 If plaintext viewed as sequence of bits, replace plaintext bit
patterns with ciphertext bit patterns.
1. Caesar Cipher
2. Monoalphabetic Cipher
3. Playfair Cipher
4. Hill Cipher
5. Polyalphabetic Ciphers
6. One-Time Pad
1. Caesar Cipher
 The Caesar Cipher involves replacing each letter of the alphabet
with the letter standing three places further down the alphabet.
 For encryption algorithm is:

C = E(3, P) = (P + 3) mod 26
 For decryption algorithm is:

P = D(3, C) = (C - 3) mod 26
Caesar Cipher (Cont…)
 Let us assign a numerical equivalent to each letter
a b c d e f g h i j k l m
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
n o p q r s t u v w x y z
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

C = E(3, P) = (P + 3) mod 26
Plain: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w
x y z
Cipher: d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
Example:
a b c
Plaintext: THE QUICK BROWN FOX
Ciphertext: WKH TXLFN EURZQ IRA
Caesar Cipher (Cont…)
 Generalised Caesar Cipher
• Allow shift by k positions.
• Encryption : C = E(K, P) = (P + K) mod 26

• Decryption : P = D(K, C) = (C - K) mod 26

 Modulo for negative number is = N- (B%N)

 Example :
-11 mod 26 = 15
26-(11%26) = 15
Caesar Cipher Examples
1. Plaintext: 2. Cipher: exxegoexsrgi
networksecurity
Key: 7 uladvyrzljbypaf Key: 4 attackatonce
Plaintext :
3. Cipher: kyzj dvjjrxv zj vetipgkvu
Key: 17
Plain: this message is
4. Plain: encrypted
information security
Key: l
Cipher: tyqzcxletzy dpnfctej
Brute force attack on Caesar Cipher
 The encryption and decryption algorithms are known.
 There are only 25 keys to try, e.g. k=1, k=2, …
 The language of the plaintext is known and easily recognizable.
Brute force attack on Caesar Cipher
Ciphertext: ZNK WAOIQ HXUCT LUD
Key Transformed text Key Transformed text
1 YMJ VZNHP GWTBS KTC 14 LZW IMAUC TJGOF XGP
2 XLI UYMGO FVSAR JSB 15 KYV HLZTB SIFNE WFO
3 WKH TXLFN EURZQ IRA 16 JXU GKYSA RHEMD VEN
4 VJG SWKEM DTQYP HQZ 17 IWT FJXRZ QGDLC UDM
5 UIF RVJDL CSPXOGPY
18 HVS EIWQY PFCKB TCL
6 THE QUICK BROWN FOX
19 GUR DHVPX OEBJA SBK
7 SGD PTHBJ AQNVM ENW
8 RFC OSGAI ZPMUL DMV 20 FTQ CGUOW NDAIZ RAJ
9 QEB NRFZH YOLTK CLU 21 ESP BFTNV MCZHY QZI
10 PDA MQEYG XNKSJ BKT 22 DRO AESMU LBYGX PYH
11 OCZ LPDXF WMJRI AJS 23 CQN ZDRLT KAXFW OXG
12 NBY KOCWE VLIQH ZIR 24 BPM YCQKS JZWEV NWF
13 MAX JNBVD UKHPG YHQ 25 AOL XBPJR IYVDU MVE
Substitution Techniques
1. Caesar Cipher
2. Monoalphabetic Cipher
3. Playfair Cipher
4. Hill Cipher
5. Polyalphabetic Ciphers
6. One-Time Pad
2. Monoalphabetic Cipher (Simple substitution)
 It is an improvement to the Caesar Cipher.
 Instead of shifting the alphabets by some number, this scheme
uses some permutation of the letters in alphabet.
 Use a single alphabet for both plaintext and cipher text.
Plain: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w
x y z
Example:
Cipher: y n l k x b s h m i w d p j r o q v f e a u g
t z c
 Cipher: kxlvzofemrj
 Plaintext:decrypstion
 Try Brute force attack :
• With 26 letters in alphabet, the possible permutations are 26!
Keys (>4x1026)
Attack on Monoalphabetic Cipher
 The relative frequencies of the letters in the ciphertext (in %) are

Ciphertext:
uzqsovuohxmopvgpozpevsgzwszopfpesxudbmetsxaizvuephzh
mdzshzowsfpappdtsvpquzwymxuzuhsxepyepopdzszufpombzwp
fupzhmdjudtmohmq
 In our ciphertext, the most common digram is ZW, which appears
three times. So equate Z with t, W with h and P with e.
 Now notice that the sequence ZWP appears in the ciphertext, and
we can translate that sequence as “the.”
Attack on Monoalphabetic Cipher (Cont…)
 If the cryptanalyst knows the nature of the plaintext, then the
analyst can exploit the regularities of the language.
 The relative frequency of the letters can be determined and
compared to a standard frequency distribution for English.
 If the message were long enough, this technique alone might be
sufficient, but because this is a relatively short message, we
cannot expect an exact match.
Substitution Techniques
1. Caesar Cipher
2. Monoalphabetic Cipher
3. Playfair Cipher
4. Hill Cipher
5. Polyalphabetic Ciphers
6. One-Time Pad
3. Playfair Cipher
 The Playfair algorithm is based on a 5 × 5 matrix (key) of letters.
 The matrix is constructed by filling in the letters of the keyword
(minus duplicates) from left to right and from top to bottom, and
then filling in the remainder of the matrix with the remaining
letters in alphabetic order. The letters I and J count as one letter.
O C U R E
Example: N A B D F
Keyword= OCCURRENCE
Plaintext= TALL TREES G H I/J K L
M P Q S T
V W X Y Z
Playfair Cipher - Encrypt Plaintext
 Operate on pair of letters (digram) at a time.
 Special: if digram with same letters appears, separate by special
letter (e.g. x)
Plaintext= TALL TREES
Plaintext= TA LX LT RE ES
 If there is an odd number of letters, then add uncommon letter to
complete digram, a X/Z may be added to the last letter.
Plaintext= NETWORK
Plaintext= NE TW OR KX
Playfair Cipher - Encrypt Plaintext
 Map each pair in key matrix
O C U R E
Plaintext: TA LX LT RE
ES N A B D F
Ciphertext: PF IZ TZ EO
RT G H I/J K L
M P Q S T
V W X Y Z
 If the
theletters
lettersare
letters on different
appear
appear ononthe rows
thesame
sameand columns,
column,
row, replace
replace
replace themthem
them withwith
with the
the letters
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toimmediately
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immediate of
below, the
right same row.
wrapping
respectively,
around
wrapping
to thearound
top to
if
 The
the order
necessary.
left sideisofimportant - the first letter of the pair should be
the row if necessary.
 replaced
For example,first. using the table above,
above, the
the letter
letter pair
pair RE
LT would be
 For example,
encoded TZ.using the table above, the letter pair TA would be
as EO.
encoded as PF.
Playfair Cipher - Is it Breakable?
 Better than monoalphabetic: relative frequency of digrams much
less than of individual letters.
 But relatively easy (digrams, trigrams, expected words)
Playfair Cipher Examples
1. Key= “engineering ” Plaintext= “test this process ”
2. Key= “keyword ” Plaintext= “come to the
window”
3. EKey=
N G“moonmission ” Plaintext=K“greet
I R Encrypted Message: E Y W ” Encrypted Message:
A B C D F pi tu pm gt ue O Lc nk zk vf yo
H K L M O lf gp xg R D A B gq ce bw
P Q S T U C
V W X Y Z F G H I
L
M O N I S Encrypted Message: M N P Q
A B C D E hq cz du S
F G H K L T U V X
P Q R T U Z
V W X Y Z
Playfair Cipher Examples
4. Key: EXAMPLE
Ciphertext: UA ARBED EXAPO PR QNX AXANR
E X A M P
L B C D F
G H I/J K N
O Q R S T
U V W Y Z

Pair: UA AR BE DE XA PO PR QN XA XA NR
Plaintext: we wi lx lm ex et at th ex ex it
Plaintext: we wilxl mexet at thex exit
Plaintext: we will meet at the exit
Substitution Techniques
1. Caesar Cipher
2. Monoalphabetic Cipher
3. Playfair Cipher
4. Hill Cipher
5. Polyalphabetic Ciphers
6. One-Time Pad
4. Hill Cipher
 Hill cipher is based on linear algebra
 Each letter is represented by numbers from 0 to 25 and
calculations are done using modulo 26.
 Encryption and decryption can be given by the following formula:
Encryption: C=PK mod 26

Decryption: P=CK-1 mod 26

mod 26
Hill Cipher Encryption
 To encrypt a message using the Hill Cipher we must first turn our
keyword and plaintext into a matrix (a 2 x 2 matrix or a 3 x 3
matrix, etc).
Example: Key = “HILL”, Plaintext = “EXAM”
a b c d e f g h i j k l m
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
n o p q r s t u v w x y z
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

=
Hill Cipher Encryption (Cont…)
== Plaintext
( X )( M ) (23 )( 12)
E A
=
4 0

C=PK mod 26
( 7
11
8
11 )( )
4
23 ( 7
11
8
11 )( )
0
12

x 4 + 8 x 23 = 212 x 0 + 8 x 12 = 96
x 4 + 11 x 23 = 297 x 0 + 11 x 12 = 132

( 7
11
8
11 )( ) (
4
23
=
2 12
297 ) ( 7
11
8
11 )( ) (
0
12
=
96
132 )
= mod 26 = = mod 26 =

Ciphertext = “ELSC”
Hill Cipher Decryption
-1
P=CK mod 26
Step 1: Find Inverse of key matrix
Step 2: Multiply the Multiplicative Inverse of the Determinant by the
Adjoin Matrix
Step 3: Multiply inverse key matrix with ciphertext matrix to obtain
plaintext matrix
Step 1: Inverse of key matrix
2 X 2 inverse of matrix

[ ] [ ]
−1
a b 1 d −b
=
c d ad − cb −c a

3 X 3 inverse of matrix

−1 1
A = ∙ adjoin( A )
determinant ( A )
Step 1: Inverse of key matrix
( ) ( )
−1
1
I nverse Key ¿ 7 8 = 11 −8
11 11 77 − 88 − 11 7

¿
1
(11
− 11 − 1 1
−8
7 )
 -11 mod 26 = 15
¿
(
1 11
15 15
18
7)mod 26  Because, modulo for negative
number is = N- (B%N)
= 26 – (11%26)
Step 2: Modular (Multiplicative) inverse
 The inverse of a number A is 1/A since A * 1/A = 1
e.g. the inverse of 5 is 1/5
 In modular arithmetic we do not have a division operation.
 The modular inverse of A (mod C) is A-1
 (A * A-1) ≡ 1 (mod C)
Example:
 The modular inverse of A mod C is the B value that makes
A * A-1 mod C = 1
A = 3, C = 11
Since (3*4) mod 11 = 1, 4 is modulo inverse of 3
12
A = 10, C = 17 , A-1 = ?
Step 2: Modular (Multiplicative) inverse
Determinants’ multiplicative inverse Modulo 26
Determinant 1 3 5 7 9 11 15 17 19 21 23 25

Inverse Modulo 26 1 9 21 15 3 19 7 23 11 5 17 25

¿
1
15 ( 11
15
18
7 ) mod 26
 Multiplicative inverse of is 7
Step 2: Multiply with adjoin of matrix
¿7
( 11
15 ) (
18
7
=
77
105
1 26
49 ) (
=
25
1
22
23 )
mod 26

¿ thus , if K =
(11X%Y
7 8
11 )
= X-(X/Y)*Y
−1
then K =
25
1 ( 22
23 )
77%26 = 77-(77/26)*26
= 77-(2)*26
= 77-52
= 25
Hill Cipher Encryption (Cont…)
= Ciphertext
( L )( C ) (11)( 2 )
E S
=
4 18

P=CK-1 mod 26
( 25
1
22
23 )( )
4
11 ( 25
1
22
23 )( )
18
2
x 4 + 22 x 11 = 342 x 18 + 22 x 2 = 494
x 4 + 23 x 11 = 257 x 18 + 23 x 2 = 64

( 25
1
22
23 )( ) (
4
11
=
342
257 ) ( 7
11
8
11 )( ) (
0
12
=
494
64 )
= mod 26 = = mod 26 =

Plaintext = “EXAM”
Hill Cipher Examples
1. Key: Hill Plaintext: short example
Ciphertext: APADJ TFTWLFJ
2. Key: ACBA Plaintext: DR GREER ROCKS (A=1, B=2,
…)
Ciphertext: FZIFTOTBXGPO
3. Key:DACB Ciphertext: SAKNOXAOJ (A=1,B=2,…)
Plaintext: WELOVEMATH
Substitution Techniques
1. Caesar Cipher
2. Monoalphabetic Cipher
3. Playfair Cipher
4. Hill Cipher
5. Polyalphabetic Ciphers
6. One-Time Pad
5. Polyalphabetic Cipher
 Monoalphabetic cipher encoded using only one fixed alphabet
 Polyalphabetic cipher is a substitution cipher in which the cipher
alphabet for the plain alphabet may be different at different
places during the encryption process.
1. Vigenere cipher
2. Vernam cipher
 Plaintext

K
e
y

PT = HELLO
KEY = GMGMG
CT = NQRXU
Vigenere Cipher
Keyword : DECEPTIVE Key must be as
Key : DECEPTIVEDECEPTIVEDECEPTIVE long as plaintext
else repeat a
Plaintext : WEAREDISCOVEREDSAVEYOURSELF keyword
Ciphertext : ZICVTWQNGRZGVTWAVZHCQYGLMGJ
C =( P1 + K 1 , P 2+ K 2 , … P m + K m ) mod 26
P =( C 1 − K 1 ,C 2 − K 2 , … Cm − K m ) mod 26

An analyst looking at only the ciphertext would detect the repeated

sequences VTW at a displacement of 9 and make the assumption that the
keyword is either three or nine letters in length.
This system is
Keyword : DECEPTIVE referred as an
Key : DECEPTIVEWEAREDISCOVEREDSAV auto key
Plaintext : WEAREDISCOVEREDSAVEYOURSELF system
Vigenere Cipher
 Multiple ciphertext letters for each plaintext letter.
 Weakness is repeating, structured keyword.
 Example:
 Plaintext: internet technologies
 Key: cryptography
 Cipher using standard algorithm: kertkbkk ttjfpfjdzm
 Cipher using auto key system:kertkbkk ttjfvbesxl
Vernam Cipher
 The ciphertext is generated by applying the logical XOR operation
to the individual bits of plaintext and the key stream.
Substitution Techniques
1. Caesar Cipher
2. Monoalphabetic Cipher
3. Playfair Cipher
4. Hill Cipher
5. Polyalphabetic Ciphers
6. One-Time Pad
6. One time pad
 Similar to Vigenere, but use random key as long as plaintext.
 Only known scheme that is unbreakable (unconditional security)
• Ciphertext has no statistical relationship with plaintext.
• Given two potential plaintext messages, attacker cannot
identify the correct message.
 Two practical limitations:
1. Difficult to provide large number of random keys
2. Distributing unique long random keys is difficult
One time pad
 Attacker knows the ciphertext:
 ANKYODKYUREPFJBYOJDSPLREYIUNOFDOIUERFPLUYTS
 Attacker tries all possible keys.
 Two examples:
 key1: pxlmvmsydofuyrvzwctnlebnecvgdupahfzzlmnyih
 Plaintext1: mr mustard with the candlestick in the hall
 key2: mfugpmiydgaxgoufhklllmhsqdqogtewbqfgyovuhwt
 Plaintext2: miss scarlet with the knife in the library
 There are many other legible plaintexts obtained with other keys.
No way for attacker to know the correct plaintext
Transposition Techniques
 A transposition cipher does not substitute one symbol for another,
instead it changes the location of the symbols.
 The simplest such cipher is the rail fence technique, in which the
plaintext is written down as a sequence of diagonals and then
read off as a sequence of rows.
 For example, to send the message “Meet me at the park” to Bob,
Alice writes
M E M A T E A K
E T E T H P R

 She then creates the ciphertext: MEMATEAKETETHPR

Rail Fence Transposition
 Easy to break: letter frequency analysis to determine depth.
 Example:
 Plaintext: internettechnology
 Depth: 3
 Cipher: IRTNGNENTEHOOYTECL

I R T N G
N E N T E H O O Y
T E C L
Rows/Columns Transposition
 Plaintext letters written in rows.
 Ciphertext obtained by reading column-by-column, but re-
arranged.
 Key determines order of columns to read.
Key: 4 3 1 2 5 6 7
Plaintext: A T T A C K P
O S T P O N E
D U N T I L T
W O A M X Y Z
Ciphertext: TTNA APTMTSUO AODW COIX KNLY PETZ

 Easy to break using letter frequency (try different column orders)

Rows/Columns Transposition
 Transposition ciphers can be made stronger by using multiple
stages of transposition
 Plaintext: securityandcryptography
 Key: 315624
 Ciphertext:EYYARDOYSTRRICGCAPPUNTH
 Transpose again using same key:
 Ciphertext:YYCURRAHEOIPDRPYSGNATCT
Cryptographic Algorithms
 Cryptographic algorithms and protocols can be grouped into four
main areas
Cryptographic
algorithms and
protocols

Symmetric Asymmetric Data integrity Authentication

encryption encryption algorithms protocols

 Data integrity
Authentication
Symmetric
Asymmetric algorithms
Protocols
encryption
encryption usedused
used to to
are
to protect
schemes
conceal
secure theblocks
based
small of
ondata,
contents
blocks the
of
of such
data,
blocks as
usesuch
of
or
messages,
streams
as offrom
cryptographic
encryptiondata alteration.
algorithms
keys
of any designed
and size,
hash to authenticate
including
function messages,
values, whichtheare
files, identity
used of
encryption
in
entities.
keys,
digital
and
signatures.
passwords
Threat and Attack
 Threat: A potential for violation of security, which exists when
there is a circumstance, capability, action, or event that could
crack security and cause harm. That is, a threat is a possible
danger that might exploit a vulnerability.
 Attack: An violation on system security that derives from an
intelligent threat; that is, an intelligent act that is a calculated
attempt to avoid security services and violate the security policy
of a system.
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