Unit - 6

DATA COLLECTION
METHODS
 Major Contents of Unit Six
6.1. Scales of Measurement - R
6.2. Classification of Data- R
6.3. Data Collection Techniques
6.4. Selection of Appropriate Method for
Data Collection
6.1. Scales of Measurement
 Scale of measurement or level of measurement is
a classification that describes the nature of
information within the values assigned to variables.
 There are four basic types of scales:
1. Nominal Scale
2. Ordinal Scale
3. Interval Scale
4. Ratio Scale 3
 ........Cont.

1. Nominal Scale
 The nominal scale assigns numbers categories, label or
identify characteristics.
 The numbers assigned have no quantitative meaning
beyond indicating the presence or absence of the
characteristic under investigation.
 The nominal scale simply denotes categories, and the
categories are mutually exclusive and have no numerical
meaning.

 .......Cont.
 The numbers we assign for the various categories are
purely arbitrary, and any arithmetic operation
applied to these numbers is meaningless.
 Here, in this case, it is impossible to define any
quantitative values or differences across the
categories.
 Nominal data include items such as sex, age group,
subject taught, type of university, birth place etc.
5
 …………Cont.

2. Ordinal Scale
 The ordinal scale is the next higher level of measurement
precision. It ensures that the possible categories can be
placed in a specific order (rank) or in some ‘natural’ way.
 The ordinal scale not only classifies but also introduces an
order into the data.
 The numbers are not obtained as a result of a counting or
measurement process, and consequently, arithmetic
operations are not allowed. 6
 ........Cont.

 Ordinal scale is the rank ordering with numeric

values and has magnitude and also values is
smaller or larger than the next, but the interval
between items are not known. Eg. Restaurant
ratings, Olympic medals, Birth order etc.
 The best way to determine central tendency on a
set of ordinal data is to use the mode; not mean.
7
 ......Cont.

3. Interval Scale
 Interval scale is a numeric scale that represents not
only the order but also the equal distances between the
values of the objects.
 Interval scale has magnitude; values are smaller or
larger than the next and also the interval between
items is known and is meaningful.
 The interval scale allows us to measure the distance
8
 ……..Cont.
 The interval scale introduces a metric – a regular and
equal interval between each data point – as well as
keeping the features of the previous two scales,
classification and order.
 In the interval scale, there is no true zero point or fixed
beginning. They do not have a true zero even if one of the
values carry the name “zero.”
 For example, in the temperature, there is no point where
the temperature can be zero. Zero degrees F does not mean
the complete absence of temperature. 9
 ………..Cont.

4. Ratio Scale
 The ratio scale represents the highest form of measurement
precision.
 Ratio scale has magnitude; values are smaller or larger than
the next and also the interval between items are known and
meaningful.
 In general, the ratio scale embraces the main attributes of the
previous three scales – classification, order and an equal
interval metric – but adds a fourth, powerful feature: a true
10
zero point.
6.2. Classification of Data
Data can be classified as Primary and Secondary
data
Data collection plays a very crucial role in the
statistical analysis.
In research, there are different methods used to gather
information, all of which fall into two categories, i.e.
primary data and secondary data.

11
 .......Cont.

 Primary data is data originated for the first time by

the researcher through direct efforts and experience,
specifically for the purpose of addressing his/her
research problem. It is known as the first hand or
raw data.
 Secondary data implies second-hand information
which is already collected and recorded by any person
other than the user for a purpose. 12
 ………Cont.
Basis for Primary Data Secondary Data
Comparison
Meaning Refers to the firsthand data Means data collected by
gathered by the researcher someone else earlier.
himself/herself.
Data Real time data Past data
Process Very involved Quick and easy
Source Questionnaire, Gov’t publications, websites,
observations, expérimentes, books, journal articles, internal
interview, FGD, etc. records, reports etc.
Cost Expensive Economical/Cheaper
Collection Long Short
time
Specific Always specific to the May or may not be specific to
researcher's needs. the researcher's need.
Available in Crude form Refined form
Accuracy and More Relatively less 13
 6.3. Data Collection
What is Data Collection
Data collection is the process by which the researcher
collects the data to answer research questions and/or
test hypotheses.
Data collection is one of the most important stages in
the process of conducting a research.
We can have the best research design in the world but
if we cannot collect the required data, we will not be
able to complete our project.
14
 .....Cont.
Data collection starts with determining what kind of
data required followed by the selection of a sample
from a certain population.
After that, we need to use a certain instrument to
collect the data from the selected sample.
Both the selection of appropriate data collection
instruments (existing, modified, or newly developed)
and clearly delineated instructions for their correct use
reduce the likelihood of errors occurring.
15
 ………………….Cont.

Data Collection Instrument

 One of the most important components of a research
design is the data collection instruments because they
gather or collect data or information.
 Data collection instrument or tool is described as a
device used to collect the data.
 The type of instrument used by the researcher
depends on the nature and objectives of the research
16
study.
 .......Cont.
 Ways of Searching for Data Collection Instruments
a) Read professional journals to learn what kind of instruments
are being used for similar studies, style, and how they are used by
the writers.
b) Read books that provide a description or actual copy of various
instruments for the reader.
c) Talk with other researchers who may know of certain tools
they have developed for themselves or may have used tools
developed by others.
d) Combine or adapt one or more tools used by other researchers.
e) Develop your own instrument to fulfill a specific need. 17
 …..Cont.
Data collection tools are instruments or
methods used to gather, measure, and record
information mainly for analysis and decision-
making.
These tools can vary widely depending on the
nature of the data, the research objectives, and
the context in which data is collected.
 ……Cont.
Data collection tools are :-
 methods,

 technologies,

 instruments used to:-

 gather,

 record, and

 store data systematically for analysis.

 .......Cont.

One of the most important components of a

research design is the data collection tools to
gather data.
Data collection tool is described as a device
used to collect the data, and the type of tools
used by the researcher depends on the nature
and objectives of the research study.
6.4. Major Contents of the Unit
Types of Data Collection Methods
1) Questionnaire
2) Interview
3) Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
4) Observation
5) Checklist etc
21
 Dominantly Useful to
The most common collect
data collection instrument quantitative data

1. Questionnaire

It Should contain 3 elements:

• Introduction – to explain the objectives
• Instructions – must be clear, simple language & short
• User-friendly – avoid difficult or ambiguous questions

22
Steps To an Effective Survey Questionnaire

Prepare your survey questions

(Formulate & choose types of questions, order them, write instructions, make
copies)
Select your respondents/sampling
Random/Selected

Administer the survey questionnaire

(date, venue, time )

Data collected

Analyze and interpret data collected

(Statistical analysis-frequency/mean/correlation/% )
23
 Rules of Designing a Questionnaire
 Prepare a cover letter in which you:
 Introduce yourself

 Describe the main objectives of the study

 Explain the relevance of the study

 Convey general instructions

 Indicate that participation is voluntary

 Assure anonymity of the information they provide

 Provide a contact number in case they have any questions

24

 Civil Service University
Department of Leadership and Good Governance
Questionnaires to be filled by managers and employees

Dear respondents,
 The questionnaire is prepared to gather data necessary for conducting study on
‘XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXX)’ for partial fulfillment of MBA. Thus, your opinion and views are
valuable so as to establish clear picture of the issue under the study and for its
successful completion. The information you provide will be used only for
academic purpose and assessed by the researcher alone, so cooperate honestly
with no fear, as your response kept strictly confidential and anonymous. Please
try to respond to every question as per the instruction there of and if you face any
problem or confusion you can contact the researcher through the address
indicated here.
 Thanks in advance for your relevant answers and cooperation!!
 The researcher՚s Address: phone: --------------, E-mail: --------------
 To fill questions with choices (part I and all tables), please check tick mark ( )
under the number of your choice.
 Write your answer clearly on space provided for open ended questions. 25
…….Cont.

26
 Formulating effective questions

1. Avoid jargon and abbreviation

Do you think that high control practices enhances voluntary

compliance? (WRONG)

How do you compare high commitment HRM wit High

control HRM? (WRONG)

27
 ………Cont.

2. Do NOT use ambiguous questions, and avoid emotional

language, use neutral language.

What do you think about a policy to pay murderous

terrorists who threaten to steal the freedoms of
peace-loving people?(WRONG)

28
 ……….Cont.
4. Do NOT ask double barrelled questions

How often and how much VAT do you pay each year?

5. Do NOT ask leading questions

Tax administration in the country is very poor, isn’t it?

6. Do NOT ask presuming questions

How much tax penalty do you pay each year?
29
 …………Cont.
7. Avoid prestige bias ( doctor, professor, expert…)

\
People might agree with influential personalities (Mayor,
Prime Minister, etc.) and tend to disagree with less popular
personalities.

8. Do NOT confuse beliefs with reality.

Most doctors say that cigarette smoke causes lung disease for
those near a smoker. Do you agree?

Do you rate a teacher higher if the teacher tells many jokes?

30
 ………..Cont.
9. Avoid asking questions that are beyond
respondents' capabilities.

Do you think the new tax proclamation is

effective in enhancing voluntary compliance?

31
6.5. Basic Types of survey questions
 Basic Types of survey questions are:-
1. Open-ended Questions
Free-response (Text Open End)

Fill-in relevant information.

2. Close-ended Questions
Dichotomous question
Multiple-choice
Likert Scale
Rank…………………..
 ……..Cont.

1.Close-ended questions

1.1. Essence of Close-ended question

 Close-ended questions are questions that have pre-

defined answers, allowing respondents to choose from a

limited set of options.
 Close-ended questions are commonly used in surveys,

interviews, and questionnaires to gather quantifiable

and specific data.
 ……..Cont.

1.2. Characteristics of Close-ended Questions

Limited Answer Choices: Respondents select
answers only from predefined responses.
Easy to Analyze: Data is straightforward for
statistical process and analysis.
Focused and Specific: Hence it is useful for
collecting precise data.
Time-Efficient: Quicker for respondents to the
questions answer.
Uniformity : It has greater uniformity of
response
Popularity : It is more popular with researchers’
 ……….Cont.
1.3. Types of Close-Ended Questions
A. Dichotomous Questions
Example:
• "Do you own a car? (Yes/No)"
Purpose:
• To obtain a binary response.

B. Multiple-Choice Questions
Example:
• What is your favorite fruit?
a) Apple
b) Banana
c) Orange
d) Mango"
Purpose:
• To provide a range of specific options.
 ………Cont.
C. Likert Scale Questions
Example:
• How satisfied are you with our service?
a) Very Satisfied
b) Satisfied
c) Neutral
d) Dissatisfied
e) Very Dissatisfied"
Purpose: To measure attitudes or opinions on a scale.
D. Rating Scale Questions
Example:
• "Rate your experience from 1 to 5, where 1 is Poor and 5 is
Excellent."
Purpose:
• To assess intensity or preference.
 ………Cont.
E. Checkbox Questions
 Example:
• "Which of the following social media platforms do you use?
☐ Facebook
☐ Telegram
☐ Twitter
☐ LinkedIn"
 Purpose:
• To collect multiple responses.
F. Drop-Down Questions
 Example:
• "Select your country:
[Dropdown menu with country names]"
 Purpose:
 ………Cont.
1.4. Advantages of Close-Ended Questions
Quick and easy for respondents to answer.
Results are easier to compare and analyze.
Minimizes ambiguity in responses.
Suitable for large-scale data collection.
 Easier, quick, and less costly to analyze
 ……..Cont.

1.5. Disadvantages of Closed

questions
 Respondents with no opinion/knowledge
can answer anyway.
 Mis-interpretation of a question can go
unnoticed
 Respondents may be frustrated because
 ……..Cont.

2. Open-ended question
2.1. The Essence
 An open-ended question is a type of question that allows
respondents to provide their own answers in their own
words, without being restricted to predefined options.
 These questions encourage detailed, personalized, and
often qualitative responses, making them ideal for
exploring opinions, feelings, or experiences.
 ……..Cont.

2.2. Features of Open-Ended Questions

No Pre-defined Answers: Respondents answer freely
without being constrained by choices.
Exploratory in Nature: Helps gather insights that
might not be anticipated.
Rich and Detailed Data: Provides depth and context to
the responses.
Flexible: Suitable for understanding opinions, reasons,
or creative ideas.
Self-expressed respondents’ responses
It has less uniformity in responses
It cannot be directly entered into statistical software;
 ……..Cont.
2.3. Examples of Open-Ended Questions
1. Opinion or Feedback:

• "What do you think about our new product?"

2. Experience:
• "Can you describe a challenge you faced at work and how
you overcame it?"

3. Ideas or Suggestions:
• "What improvements would you suggest for our website?"

4. Feelings or Emotions:
• "How did you feel during the training session?"
 ……..Cont.
2.4. Advantages of Open-Ended Questions
Provides in-depth understanding of respondents'
perspectives.
Encourages creativity and critical thinking in
responses.
Helps uncover new ideas or issues not previously
considered.
Useful for qualitative research and exploratory
studies.
 ……..Cont.

2.5. Limitations of Open-Ended Questions

Responses are harder to analyze and quantify
compared to close-ended questions.
Time-consuming for respondents to answer and
researchers to interpret.
May result in vague or irrelevant answers if not
clearly framed.
 ……..Cont.

2.6. When to Use Open-Ended Questions

When exploring new topics or gaining deeper

insights.

To collect feedback, suggestions, or opinions.

When seeking context or understanding behind a

respondent’s decision or behavior.

 ……..Cont.

2.7. Advantages of open questions

 They permit an unlimited number of possible
answers.
 Respondents can answer in detail and can
qualify and clarify responses.
 Un-anticipated findings can be discovered.
 They permit adequate answers to complex
issues.
 They permit creativity, self-expression and
richness of detail.
 They reveal respondent's logic thinking process
and frame of reference.
 ……..Cont.

2.8. Disadvantages of Open questions

 Different respondents give different
degrees of detail in answers - difficulty in
analysis
 Response may be irrelevant or buried in
useless detail.
 Comparisons, coding and statistical
analysis become very difficult.
 Questions may be too general for
respondents who lose direction.
 Mode of Dissemination

Self-administered

Mail survey

Web survey
Effective way Involves verbal
of gathering and non-verbal
information communications

2. Interview

 Can be conducted
• face to face,
• by telephone,
• online
49
 Steps To an effective Interview
Prepare your interview schedule

Select your subjects/ key informants

Conduct the interview

Analyze and interpret data collected from the interview

50
 Types of Interviews
 There are three most common types of interview:
1. Structured Interview
2. Semi-structured Interview
3. Unstructured Interview

1. Structured Interview
Uses series of structured questions.
Involves face to face interaction.
Used in quantitative/qualitative researches.
 ……Cont.

2. Semi-structured Interview
A set of general questions
The schedules are flexible and can be
updated after each interviews
Probing/searching is crucial (i.e. asking
for an elaboration of the responses of the
interviewee using when, who, how, etc.
questions)
The interviewee need to feel comfortable
and relaxed (informal)
 ……..Cont.

3. Unstructured Interview
 The researcher tries to get the holistic
understanding of the interviewee's point of view.
 The respondent is free to talk with less
directional influence.
 It needs more expertise to control and more
time for analysis.
 It is purely qualitative.
 Using tape recorder is important though not
always
 It is mostly not used
 Tips on interviews
 Begin with an explanation of who you are and what
the survey is about and ensure confidentiality.
 Try to achieve rapport with the respondent: be
friendly and look as if you are enjoying the interview
and are interested in what they have to say.
 Be aware of the importance of body language in
face-toface interviews.
 Interviewees are more at ease with someone who is
like them in terms of ethnicity, class, sex, speech
and dress code.
 Dress in a similar manner to your interviewee if
possible;
 Tape-recording or note taking.
 Observe verbal &
non-verbal communication, Need to keep
surrounding atmosphere, careful records of
culture & situation the observations

3. Observations

Can be done through observing

discussions, observations of habits, rituals,
review of documentation,
experiments

55
………Cont.

56
Steps To Effective Observation
Determine what needs to be observed
(Plan, prepare checklist, how to record data)

Select your participants

Random/Selected

Conduct the observation

(venue, duration, recording materials, take photographs )

Compile data collected

Analyze and interpret data collected

57
 Types of Observation
Observation is a fundamental method of data
collection used in various disciplines like social
sciences, education, business, and natural
sciences.
It involves systematically watching, listening
to, or interacting with subjects to gather
information.
There are several types of observation,
categorized based on the level of involvement,
setting, structure, and purpose.
 ……..Cont.
a. Participant Observation
Definition: The observer actively engages in
the activities of the group or setting being
studied.
Use Cases: Ethnographic studies, cultural
research, or social experiments.
Advantages: Provides in-depth insights and
contextual understanding.
Challenges: Potential bias due to observer
involvement; ethical concerns.
 ………Cont.

b. Non-Participant Observation
 Definition: The observer remains detached
and does not engage with the subjects being
studied.
 Use Cases: Classroom behavior studies,
wildlife research.
 Advantages: Minimizes bias and does not
interfere with the natural behavior of subjects.
 Challenges: Limited contextual understanding
compared to participant observation.
4. Focus Group Discussion(FGD)
A Focus Group Discussion (FGD) is a qualitative
research method and data collection technique in
which a selected group of people discusses a
given topic in-depth, facilitated by a moderator.
Focus group discussions are facilitated
discussions, held with a small group of people
who have specialist knowledge in a particular
topic.
 …Cont.
 FGD can be carried out with 6 to 12 participants and
marked by guided group discussion, question and
answer, interactive dialogue, and other activities.
 Create groups strategically-Consider if complementary
or argumentative interactions would be more
appropriate for the research.
 Assign a HOST, MODERATOR, FIELD NOTE
Recorder, and Technology Assistant.
62
 ………..Cont.

 Opening FGD:
Help participants to relax
Introduce the purpose, confidentiality & anonymity
Negotiate the length of the FGD & ask participants to
respect it
 Asking questions:
Start with general and easy questions.
Then move to specific and sensitive questions.
Keep an eye contact
Make sure that no one dominates
However, probing the response of participants is
important
 ………Cont.

Seeking response: -
Gather as many diverse opinions as possible
Encourage those who are nervous to share
their ideas
Some people might approach you after the
discussion to give you an information that they
were not comfortable sharing in the FGD, take a
note of that
Wrapping up: -
Thank participants
 5. Documentary Research
This refers to the systematic use of published
and unpublished materials for investigation.
There are three types of documentary research:-
 Collecting and analyzing the works of others- generating
information from previous writers in the field in question (meta
analysis and systematic review).
 Use of Archival Sources- using public and private organizational
records (archives) as sources of information. E.g. letters. Minutes,
etc.
 Re-analysis of data sets- reanalyzing the data collected by other
researchers or organizations. E.g. reanalyzing the census data
set, analyzing crime statistics, etc.
 . ……Cont.
 Issues to be considered in documentary research:
 Reliability of data - who, how, when the data is collected.
 Suitability of the data
 Adequacy of the data - in terms of accuracy and sufficiency
 Advantages of Documentary research
 Data readily available
 Easy to do
 Inexpensive and economical:
 Disadvantages
 Accuracy of the information is always questionable
 Limited/incomplete data
 Data out of context
 Official statistics are not always exhaustive.
 6.6. Validity and Reliability

Validity
 Validity is defined as the extent to which a concept is accurately
measured in a quantitative study.
• For example, a survey designed to explore depression but which
actually measures anxiety would not be considered valid.
Reliability
 The extent to which a research instrument consistently has the
same results if it is used in the same situation on repeated
occasions.
 A simple example of validity and reliability
• An alarm clock that rings at 7:00 each morning, but is set for
6:30. It is very reliable (it consistently rings the same time each
day), but is not valid (it is not ringing at the desired time).
 ……..Cont.

Major types of validity

1. Content validity.
 This category looks at whether the instrument adequately covers all
the content that it should with respect to the variable.
 Content validity is the degree to which the construct of interest is
"covered" by a measure (Hair et al., 2010).
 In other words, does the instrument cover the entire domain
related to the variable, or construct it was designed to
measure?
 Experts are asked their opinion about whether an
instrument measures the concept intended.
2. Construct validity
 Is the appropriateness of inferences made on the basis of observations
or measurements (often test scores), specifically whether a test
measures the intended construct.
 …….Cont.
Convergent validity
 Shows that an instrument is highly correlated with
instruments measuring similar variables
 It denotes the scale correlates positively with other measures
of a similar construct
 For example: both supervisions and subordinates respond
similarly to a perceived reward system measure administered
to them.
• (AVE) must be above 0.5 (Hair et al., 2010: Kline,
2010).
 ……..Cont.
Divergent/discriminate validity
 the extent to which a specific latent construct is different
from other constructs
• Divergent validity helps to establish
construct validity by demonstrating that the construct
you are interested in (e.g., anger) is different from
other constructs that might be present in your study
(e.g., depression). .
• In this case, for example, there should be a low
correlation between an instrument that measures
motivation and one that measures self-efficacy.
 The extent to which a specific latent construct is
different from other constructs (Byrne, 2010).