TABLE OF CONTENTS

Operating System :
01 Generation 03 Types of Kernel
Described 5 generations Described 3 types of
of Operating System Kernel

Types of Operating
02 System 04 References
Described 5 types of Names of the References
Operating System which was used throught
the project
 NETWORK
Computer networks are the backbone of modern communication, facilitating
the seamless exchange of information and resources between connected
devices. These networks can be intricate and diverse, encompassing
various types of connections and configurations to meet the demands of
different applications.

Here are key aspects related to computer networks:

❶ Topology: Computer networks can have diverse topologies, defining the
arrangement of nodes and links. Common topologies include bus, star, ring, mesh,
and hybrid configurations. Each topology has its advantages and disadvantages,
impacting factors such as scalability, fault tolerance, and ease of management.
❷ Protocols: Communication in computer networks relies on protocols, which
define the rules and conventions for data exchange. The Internet Protocol Suite
(TCP/IP) is a fundamental set of protocols governing the operation of the Internet,
ensuring standardized communication across a global network.
❸ Network Devices: Devices such as routers, switches, hubs, and modems play
crucial roles in managing and directing data within a network. Routers, for
instance, enable communication between different networks, while switches
facilitate efficient data transmission within a local network.
❹ Wireless Networks: With the proliferation of mobile devices, wireless
networks have become integral. Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular networks enable
❺ Security: Network security is paramount to protect against unauthorized access,
data breaches, and malicious activities. Firewalls, encryption protocols, and intrusion
detection systems are essential components of network security strategies.
❻ Network Models: The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model and the TCP/IP
model are
conceptual frameworks that help understand and design computer networks. These
models delineate
the functions of various network layers, from physical transmission to application-level
services.
❼ Internet of Things (IoT): The IoT represents a paradigm where everyday objects
are embedded with sensors and connected to the internet, forming a vast network of
interconnected devices. This interconnectedness enhances data collection, automation,
and communication.
❽ Bandwidth and Latency: Bandwidth refers to the capacity of a network to transmit
data, while latency
is the time it takes for data to travel from source to destination. These factors are critical
in determining the performance and responsiveness of a network.
❾ Cloud Computing: Cloud networks provide on-demand access to computing
resources and services. Cloud computing models, including Infrastructure as a Service
(IaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), and Software as a Service (SaaS), rely on robust and
scalable network infrastructures.
TYPES OF NETWORKS
There are various types of computer networks, each designed to cater to specific needs and requirements.
Here's a comparison of different types of networks based on their characteristics:

1. Local Area Network (LAN):

- Scope: Limited geographical area, such as a single building or campus.
- Speed: High data transfer rates within the network.
- Use Case: Ideal for connecting devices within a confined space, like office buildings or educational institutions.
2. Wide Area Network (WAN):
- Scope: Spans a large geographical area, often across cities or countries.
- Speed: Data transfer rates can vary and may be slower than LANs.
- Use Case: Connects LANs over longer distances, enabling communication between geographically dispersed offices.
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
- Scope: Intermediate in size, covering a city or large campus.
- Speed: Offers higher data transfer rates compared to WANs.
- Use Case: Connects multiple LANs within a city, facilitating efficient communication for city-wide organizations.
4. Personal Area Network (PAN):
- Scope: Very short-range, typically within the range of an individual person, like connecting personal devices.
- Speed: Relatively high data transfer rates for short-distance communication.
- Use Case: Connects personal devices like smartphones, laptops, and wearables.
5. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN):
- Connection: Utilizes wireless technologies like Wi-Fi.
- Flexibility: Allows for mobility within the network coverage area.
- Use Case: Commonly used in homes, offices, and public spaces for wireless connectivity.
6. Virtual Private Network (VPN):
- Security: Encrypts data for secure communication over public networks.
- Connection: Extends a private network over a public network (e.g., the internet).
- Use Case: Enables secure remote access to corporate networks, maintaining confidentiality.
7. Intranet:
- Accessibility: Limited to an organization's internal users.
- Content: Hosts internal websites, documents, and applications.
- Use Case: Facilitates internal communication, collaboration, and information sharing.
8. Extranet:
- Accessibility: Extends beyond an organization to include select external partners.
- Collaboration: Supports secure collaboration and data exchange with external entities.
- Use Case: Allows controlled access for business partners or clients to specific resources.
9. Internet:
- Global Connectivity: Connects networks worldwide through a decentralized structure.
- Public Access: Open to the public for information access and communication.
- Use Case: Enables global communication, information sharing, and online services.

These different types of networks serve diverse purposes, ranging from local and personal connectivity to global
communication and resource sharing. The choice of network type depends on factors such as the scale of
operation, geographical dispersion, and specific requirements of the users or organizations involved.
 ROLE OF PHYSICAL ADDRESSING
Physical addressing plays a crucial role in computer networking, specifically in the realm of
data link layer and network layer protocols. Physical addressing is used to uniquely identify
devices on a network, allowing for the proper transmission and delivery of data. Here are
key roles of physical addressing in networking:

1. Device Identification: 2. Data Link Layer Functionality: 3. Frame Forwarding:

Physical addresses, often Physical addressing is an integral part of the In a network with multiple devices,
represented as Media data link layer, which is responsible for the each network adapter has a
Access Control (MAC) reliable transmission of data frames distinct physical address. When a
addresses in Ethernet between directly connected devices on the device sends a data frame, it
networks, uniquely identify same network segment. The MAC address includes the MAC address of the
network interface controllers is used by protocols like Ethernet to direct destination device in the frame
(NICs) or network adapters frames to the appropriate destination. header. Routers and switches use
attached to devices. These this address information to forward
addresses are typically the frame to the correct
burned into the hardware destination.
and serve as a permanent
identifier.
 4. Local Network Communication: Physical addressing is particularly important in
local networks (e.g., LANs). Devices within the same LAN use physical addresses to
communicate directly without the need for routing. Switches use MAC addresses to make
forwarding decisions within the local network.

5. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): In IPv4 networks, ARP is used to map IP addresses to MAC
addresses. When a device wants to communicate with another device on the same network, it uses ARP
to discover the MAC address corresponding to the IP address of the destination.

In summary, physical addressing provides a foundational mechanism for identifying and directing
communication between devices on a network. It plays a pivotal role in the functioning of data link layer
protocols, enabling the reliable and efficient transmission of data within local and interconnected networks.
 REFERENCES

WWW.W3SCHOOLS.C WWW.GEEKSFORGEEKS.C
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