Foundation Engineering

 Foundation engineering is the art of selecting, designing,

and constructing the structural elements that transfer
the load of a structure to underlying soil or rock.
 The term “Foundation Engineering” is used to include the
design of foundations for buildings and other structures
and also for such a non-foundation problems as designs
of rigid retaining walls, flexible retaining walls (sheet pile
walls), cofferdams, tunnels, and earth dams, as well as
the design of natural slopes, dewatering of soils, and
stabilization of soils mechanically and chemically.
 A foundation is interfacing element between the
superstructure and the underlying soil or rock.
 The loads transmitted by the foundation to the
underlying soil must not cause soil shear failure or
excessive settlement of the superstructure.

02/23/25 1
Functions of Foundations
i. Reduction of load intensity- By increasing the area of contact, so
that the total load divided by the total area (intensity of load)
doesn’t exceed the bearing capacity of the soil.
ii. To load the bearing surface at a uniform rate so as to
prevent unequal settlement (or even distribution of loads).
iii. To prevent the lateral movement of the supporting material
- minimizes cracks in the super structure due to expansion or
contraction of sub soil because of moisture movement in some
problematic soils.
iv. To secure a level and firm bed for building operations.
v. To increase the lateral stability of the structure as a whole -
It anchors the super structure to the ground, thus imparting lateral
stability to the super structure.
vi. Safety against undermining - provides structural safety against
undermining (scouring) due to burrowing animals and flood water.

2
Foundation Design Approach
1) Determine the foundation loads to be supported.
2) Evaluate the subsurface exploration and laboratory
testing programs.
3) Prepare a final soil profile.
 Determine soil layers suitable or unsuitable for shallow
foundations or deep foundations.
 Also consider if ground improvement techniques could
modify unsuitable layers into suitable support layers.
4) Consider and prepare alternative designs (shallow
foundations or deep foundations).
5) Prepare cost estimates for feasible alternative foundation
designs including all associated substructure cost.
6) Select the optimum foundation alternative.

3
Foundation
Engineering
Chapter – One
Geotechnical
Investigation
Instructor : Serbessa T.
4
 CHAPTER ONE
GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION
 The process of determining the layers of natural soil deposits that
will underlie a proposed structure and their physical properties is
generally referred to as Geotechnical investigation.
 An investigation of a site is essential for judging its suitability for the
proposed engineering works and for preparing adequate and
economic designs.
 It is also necessary for analyzing safety or causes of failure of
existing works, for selecting construction materials and for deciding
upon the construction method to be applied.
 Generally, any site investigation should start with the collection and
examination of the already existing data about the soil and
geological conditions of the site.
 In many areas the existing local knowledge, records of trial pits, bore
holes, etc., in the vicinity and the behavior of existing structures,
particularly if they are similar to the proposed ones, are very useful.

5
Purpose of geotechnical
investigation
 Generally, the purpose of soil investigation includes:
Selection of the type and the depth of foundation
suitable for a given structure.
Evaluation of the load-bearing capacity of the
foundation.
Estimation of the probable settlement of a structure.
Determination of potential foundation problems (for
example, expansive soil, collapsible soil, sanitary
landfill, and so on).
Establishment of ground water table.
Prediction of lateral earth pressure for structures like
retaining walls, sheet pile walls, cofferdams, and braced
cuts.
02/23/25
Establishment of construction methods for changing 6
subsoil conditions.
Planning of Soil Investigation
program
 The objective of the investigation program is to
determine, within practical limits, the stratification and
engineering properties of the soils underlying the site.
 The principal properties of interest in site investigation
will be the strength, settlement/deformation, and
hydraulic characteristics of soils.
 The program should be planned so that the maximum
amount of information can be obtained with minimum
cost.
 The actual planning of subsurface exploration program
is performed in steps/phases.

02/23/25 7
Phases of Geotechnical
Investigation
1st. Assembly of all available/existing information
 This step of planning of soil exploration program is
also known as desk study.
 Information regarding dimensions, column spacing,
type and use of the structure, basement
requirements, and any special architectural
considerations of the proposed building should be
gathered during this stage of investigation.
 Foundation regulations in the local building code should
be consulted for any special requirements.
 For bridges the geotechnical engineer should have
access to type and span lengths as well as pier loadings.
 This information will indicate any settlement limitations,
and can be used to estimate foundation loads.

02/23/25 8
Desk Study cont’d
 First stage of site investigation has negligible
cost.
 Look for any freebies (i.e., information
available currently)such as;
 Utility maps
 Aerial photographs
 Topographical maps
 Existing site investigation reports (for
nearby sites)
 Other information from local councils,
literature
02/23/25 9
Desk Study cont’d
Source Functional use
Utility Maps  Identifies buried utility
locations
 Identifies access restrictions
 Prevents damage to utilities
Aerial  Identifies man-made
Photographs structures
 Identifies potential borrow
source areas
 Provides geologic and
02/23/25 hydrological information which 10

can be used as a basis for site

Desk Study cont’d
Topographic Maps  Provides good index map of site
area
 Allows for estimation of site
topography
 Identifies physical features in the
site area
 Can be used to assess access
restrictions
Existing Ground  May provide information on nearby
Investigation Report soil/rock type, strength parameters,
hydrogeological issues, foundation
types previously used,
environmental concerns
02/23/25 11
Geologic Reports  Provides information on nearby
2ndReconnaissance of the
area
 This may be in the form of a field trip to
the site which can reveal information on
the type and behavior of adjacent
structures such as cracks, noticeable
sags, and possibly sticking of doors and
windows.
 The type of local existing structure may
influence, to a considerable extent, the
exploration program and the best
foundation type for the proposed
adjacent structure.
02/23/25 12
Reconnaissance of the area
cont’d
 The following information can be gathered during
this stage of investigation.
 Site access for insitu tests and exploration
equipment
 Topography of the site
 Site geology (drainage and erosion patterns)
 Conditions of adjacent structures
 Bodies of water (rivers)- groundwater flow
 Cuts or Excavations (adjacent roads)
 Any obvious problems foreseen? (sinkholes, sand
dunes, etc)
 Talk to residents
13
3rd. A preliminary site
investigation
 In this phase a few borings are made or
a test pit is opened to establish in a
general manner the stratification, types
of soil to be expected, and possibly the
location of the groundwater table.
 One or more borings should be taken to
bedrock, or competent strata, if the
initial borings indicate the upper soil is
loose or highly compressible.
14
 4th. A detailed site
investigation
 Where the preliminary site investigation
has established the feasibility of the
project, a more detailed exploration
program is undertaken.
 The preliminary borings and data are
used as a basis for locating additional
borings, which should be confirmatory in
nature, and determining the additional
samples required.

02/23/25 15
Methods of soil Exploration
 Generally, we may categorize soil
exploration methods as;
1. Indirect Exploration Methods
(Geophysical methods), and
2. Direct Exploration Methods (Test pits,
boreholes, insitu tests, lab tests)

02/23/25 16
1. Indirect Exploration
Methods(Geophysical Methods)
 Geophysical methods are nondestructive
techniques that are used to provide information
to characterize soils and rocks and hydrological
and environmental conditions at a site.
 This methods are also used for inspection and
detection of anomalous conditions such as void
spaces beneath foundations.
 Some of the popular Geophysical methods are;
A. Ground penetrating radar
B. Seismic surveys, and
C. Electromagnetic survey

17
 Ground Penetrating
Radar(GPR)
 GPR, also called georadar, is a high-
resolution, high-frequency(10MHz to
1000MHz) electromagnetic technique for
imaging soils and ground structures.
 An antenna is used to transmit and
recover radar pulses generated by a pulse
generator.
 The returned pulse is then processed to
produce images of the soil profile as
shown in the figure below.
18
GPR cont’d

19
GPR cont’d

20
GPR cont’d
 The key geotechnical uses of GPR are
soil profile imaging and location of
buried objects.
 GPR produces continuous-resolution
images of the soil profile with very
little soil disturbance.
 It is not suitable for highly conductive
(>15milliohms/m) wet clays and silts.
 Its resolution decreases with depth.
21
Seismic Surveys
 Seismic investigations utilize the fact
that surface waves travel with
different velocities through different
materials.
 The subsurface interfaces are
determined by recording the
magnitude and travel time of the
seismic waves at a point some
distance from the source of the wave.
22
Seismic Surveys cont’d
 The velocity of propagation is the most
important parameter in the application of
seismic methods.
 P waves always travel fastest through the
medium and are first recorded.
 S waves cannot travel through fluids, therefore,
a saturated soil layer will show the same S
wave response as if it were dry.
 The densities and elastic properties of the
geological materials control the velocity of
propagation.
23
Seismic Surveys cont’d
 For an isotropic elastic medium, the shear wave
velocity, Vs, is:

 Where G is the shear modulus and ρ is the

density of the material.
 When a seismic wave encounters a boundary
between two elastic media the wave energy is
transmitted by reflection, refraction and
diffraction.
 Seismic reflection and refraction are used in
geotechnical site characterization.
24
Seismic Surveys cont’d

Fig.Transmission of wave energy

25
Electromagnetic surveys
(EMS)
 EMS involves measuring one or more
electrical or magnetic fields induced by an
applied or natural electromagnetic current.
 EMS is mostly used to:
 Locate bodies of high electric conductivity
such as buried metal pipes and storage tanks.
 Determine the saturation level and type of
pore fluids present in soils.
 EMS testing is often carried out from an
airplane or a helicopter.
26
EMS cont’d
 No ground control at the site is
required.
 The following are the most widely
used EMS methods for geotechnical
studies :
1. Frequency domain electromagnetics(FDE)
2. Very-low-frequency
electromagnetics(VLFE)
3. Time domain electromagnetics(TDE)
27
Frequency domain
electromagnetics(FDE)
 It is a continuous-wave field method that
is primarily used to map lateral variations
of a structure in the subsurface.
 A fixed transmitter is used on a single
frequency.
 The electrical conductivity of the soil is
determined by measuring the magnitude
and phase of the electromagnetic current.

28
Very-low-frequency
electromagnetics(VLFE)
 VLFE is also a continuous-wave
field method that detects
increases in electrical
conductivity by measuring the
distortion of the very-low-
frequency waves.
 VLFE is very useful in detecting
fractures.
29
Time domain
electromagnetics(TDE)
 TDE measures the rate of decay
of pulsating currents over time.
 It is useful in determining the
variation of conductivity of soils
with depth.
 For example, one can obtain
variations of soil saturation with
depth using TDE.
30
Summary of Geophysical
methods

31
2. Direct or Semi-direct
Methods (Destructive
Methods) of Exploration
 This methods consists of test pits, augering,
and drilling.
 The holes produced by augering and drilling
are called auger holes and boreholes
respectively.
 The general term borings is used to include
boreholes, auger holes and test pits.
 These methods allow for the extraction of soil
samples and the performance of in-situ tests.

32
Test Pits
 The simplest and cheapest method of shallow soil exploration
is to excavate test pit to depths of 3 to 4 m.
 The use of test pits enables the in-situ soil conditions to be
examined visually, thus the boundaries between strata and
the nature of any macro-fabric can be accurately determined.
 It is relatively easy to obtain disturbed or undisturbed soil
samples
 In cohesive soils block samples can be cut by hand from the
bottom of the pit and tube samples can be obtained from the
sides of the pit.
 The size of pit should be sufficient to provide necessary
working space.
 Generally, it is recommended to use a clear working space of
1 m x1m at the bottom of the pit.
02/23/25 33
Test pit cont’d

02/23/25 34
Different Soil Profiles in the test pit: (1) Clayey silt
(2) Sandy silt (3) Clean sand (4) Sandy gravel

02/23/25 35
Trenches
 Are long shallow pits.
 As a trench is continuous over
a considerable length, it
provides exposure along a line.
 Trenches are more suitable
than pits for exploration on
slopes.
02/23/25 36
Boring Method
 This is the most widely used method.
 It provides samples from shallow to deeper
depths for visual inspection as well as
laboratory tests.
 A vertical borehole is drilled into the ground to
get information about the sub-soil strata.
 Samples are taken from the borehole and
tested in the laboratory.
 The borehole may be used for conducting in-
situ tests and for locating groundwater table.
 Extensometers or pressure meters may also
be installed in the borehole for the
measurement of deformation in the sub-strata.
02/23/25 37
Boring method cont’d
 Boring is required for the following
purposes:
 To obtain representative soil and rock
samples for laboratory tests.
 To identify the groundwater conditions.
 To perform in-situ tests to assess
appropriate soil characteristics.

02/23/25 38
Boring method cont’d
 Depending on the type of soil and the
purpose of boring, the following methods
are used for drilling holes into the
ground .
 Auger boring
 Wash boring
 Rotary drilling
 Percussion drilling
 Core boring
02/23/25 39
Table 1.2: Comparison of Subsurface Exploration/Mapping Methods

Method Advantage Disadvantage

Geophysical  Nondestructive  Cannot inspect or sample soils.
methods  Cost effective for soil
profiling and detection of
buried objects.
Test pits: A pit is dug  Cost effective  Depth limited to about 6m in stiff
either by hand or by a  Not dependent on terrain clays
backhoe.  Provide detailed information  May require side supports in coarse-
of stratigraphy grained soils and soft clays
 Large quantities of disturbed  Deep pits uneconomical
soils are available for testing  Excavation below ground water and
 Large blocks of undisturbed into rock difficult and costly
samples can be carved out  Too many pits may scar site and
from the pit require backfill soil
 Field tests can be conducted  Time consuming
at the bottom of the pit  Limited to depths above ground
water level. 40
Table 1.2: Comparison of Subsurface Exploration/Mapping Methods
cont’d

Hand augers  Cost effective  Depth limited to about 3m to 6m

 Not dependent on terrain  Labor intensive
 Portable  Undisturbed samples can be taken
 Low headroom required only for soft clay deposits
 Used in uncased holes  Cannot be used in rocks, stiff
 Ground water location can clays, dry sand, etc.,
be easily identified and
measured
Power/Mechanical  Quick  Depth limited to about 15m: At
Augers  Used in uncased holes greater depth drilling becomes
 Undisturbed samples can difficult and expensive
be obtained quite easily  Site must be accessible to
 Groundwater location can motorized vehicle 41

be identified
Table 1.2: Comparison of Subsurface Exploration/Mapping Methods
cont’d

Wash boring:  Can be used in difficult  Depth limited to about 30m

water is pumped to terrain  Slow drilling through stiff
the bottom of  Low equipment cost clays and gravels
borehole and soil  Used in uncased holes  Difficulty in accurate location
washings are of groundwater level
returned to surface.  Undisturbed soil samples
A drill bit is cannot be obtained
rotated and
dropped to produce
a chopping action.

42
Table 1.2: Comparison of Subsurface Exploration/Mapping Methods
cont’d

Rotary drilling:  Quick  Expensive equipment

A drill bit is  Drill through any  Terrain must be accessible
pushed by type of soil or rock to motorized vehicle
weight of drilling  Can drill to depths of  Difficulty in obtaining
equipment and 7500m location of groundwater
rotated by a  Undisturbed samples level
motor. can be easily  Additional time required
recovered for setup and cleanup.

43
Locations & Depths of Investigation points

02/23/25 44
Locations & Depths of Investigation points cont’d

02/23/25 45
Locations & Depths of Investigation points cont’d

02/23/25 46
Locations & Depths of Investigation points cont’d

02/23/25 47
Locations & Depths of Investigation points cont’d

02/23/25 48
Locations & Depths of Investigation points cont’d

02/23/25 49
Annex B.3 Examples of recommendations
for the spacing and depth of investigations
(1) The following spacing of investigation points should
be used as guidance:
 for high-rise and industrial structures, a grid pattern with
points at 15 m to 40 m distance;
 for large-area structures, a grid pattern with points at not
more than 60 m distance;
 for linear structures (roads, railways, channels, pipelines,
dikes, tunnels, retaining walls), a spacing of 20 m to 200 m;
 for special structures (e.g. bridges, stacks, machinery
foundations), two to six investigation points per foundation;
 for dams and weirs, 25 m to 75 m distance, along vertical
sections.

02/23/25 50
Table 1.3: Guidelines for the Minimum Number of
Boreholes for Buildings and Subdivisions

Source: Muni Budhu, Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering 3rd

Edition

02/23/25 51
Depth of investigation points

(5) For high-rise structures

and civil engineering projects,
the larger value of the
following conditions should
be applied:
− za ≥ 6 m;
− za ≥ 3.0 bF.
where bF is the smaller side
length of the foundation.
02/23/25 52
Depth of investigation points cont’d

02/23/25 53
Depth of investigation points
cont’d

02/23/25 54
Depth of investigation points
cont’d

02/23/25 55
Depth of investigation points
cont’d

02/23/25 56
Depth of investigation points
cont’d

02/23/25 57
Depth of investigation points
cont’d

02/23/25 58
Depth of investigation points
cont’d

02/23/25 59
Depth of investigation points
cont’d

02/23/25 60
FIELD/IN-SITU/ TESTS
 During a ground investigation, field tests can be
conducted to provide additional ground
stratification information and to obtain
geotechnical parameters for the design.
 The tests are arranged such that the data they
reveal complement the soil and rock sampling so
that all the information retrieved from the ground
investigation is linked.
 A range of tests exist, each of which is used to
gain specific information, and the following tests
are recognized in EN1997-2:2007 and ISO 22476
(the International Standard for Geotechnical
Investigation and Testing – Field testing):

02/23/25 61
FIELD / IN-SITU TESTS cont’d

 cone penetration test;

 pressuremeter and dilatometer tests;
 standard penetration test;
 dynamic probing;
 weight sounding test;
 field vane test;
 flat dilatometer test;
 plate loading test.

62
1). Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
 Standard Penetration Test (SPT) was developed around
1927 and it is perhaps the most popular field test
performed mostly in coarse grained (or cohesionless)
soils.
 This test is generally used to determine the bearing
capacity of sands or gravels and is conducted with a
split spoon sampler (a sample tube which can be split
open longitudinally after sampling) with internal and
external diameters of 35 and 50mm respectively.
 A full guide on the methods and use of the SPT is
given by Clayton (1995) and the test specification is
given in EN ISO 22476-3:2005.

02/23/25 63
SPT cont’d
 The sampler, connected to a
sequence of drive rods, is lowered
down the borehole until it rests on the
layer of cohesionless soil to be tested.
 It is then driven into the soil for a
length of 450mm by means of a
63.5kg hammer free-falling 760mm
for each blow.

64
SPT cont’d
 The number of blows required to drive the
last 300mm is recorded and this figure is
designated as the N-value or the
penetration resistance of the soil layer.
 The first 150mm of driving is ignored
because of possible loose soil in the bottom
of the borehole from the boring operations.
 After the tube has been removed from the
borehole it can be opened and its contents
examined.
65
SPT cont’d
 In gravelly sand damage can occur to
the cutting head of the sampler and a
60° solid cone can be fitted in its place.
 In such a case the test is recorded as
SPT(C).
 The N-value derived from such soils
appears to be of the same order as
that obtained when the cutting head is
used in finer soils.
66
Correction factors to the measured N-value
 The N-value observed from the test is affected
by different features of the testing procedure
and ground conditions.
 To take these into consideration, a number of
correction factors can be applied to achieve a
more appropriate N-value.
 The most significant factors address energy
losses delivered by the hammer assembly and
the effect of overburden pressure acting on
the soil under test.
 EN ISO 22476-3:2005, Annex A offers the
following corrections:
02/23/25 67
i) Energy delivered to the drive
rods
 An energy ratio, Er, measuring the ratio of the energy
applied to the driving rods to the theoretical energy
available from the hammer, can be used to assess the
energy loss in the hammer system.
 The N-value is adjusted to a reference energy ratio of 60%
through the following expression:

 where N60 denotes the N-value corrected for

energy losses for a system operating with an
energy ratio Er.
68
ii) Effect of overburden pressure in sands
 An important feature of the standard penetration
test is the influence of the effective overburden
pressure on the N-value.
 Sand can exhibit different N-values at different
depths even though its density index is constant.
 The effect of the overburden pressure can be taken
into account by combining the N-value by the
relevant Correction factor, CN listed in Table below.
 The N60 value can now be corrected against a
normalised effective vertical stress σv ′ = 100 kPa:

69
Table 1.4: Correction factors for
overburden effective vertical stress, σ′ v.

where (N1)60 denotes the N-value corrected for

energy losses and normalised for effective vertical
overburden stress.
70
iii) Energy losses due to the length of the rods
 Where rods of length less than 10m
are used, a correction can be applied
to the blow count for sands to allow
for energy losses.
 The correction factors are given Table
1.5. The (N1)60 expression can now
be extended to allow for the energy
losses in the rods:

71
Table 1.5: Correction factors for rod
length in sands.

72
Correlations between blow count and density index

 Terzaghi and Peck (1948) evolved a qualitative

relationship between the density index of
normally consolidated sand and the N-value
and, later, Gibbs and Holtz (1957) put figures to
this relationship.
 More recent work has adjusted the figures to
the normalised blow count (N1)60 and these are
published in EN 1997-2:2007, Annex F and
reproduced in Table 1.6.
73
Table 1.6. Correlation between Normalised blow count (N1)60
and density index ID

74
Details of SPT Setups

02/23/25 75
Driving sequence in an SPT

02/23/25 76
2). Vane Shear Test
 The vane shear device consists of four thin metal blades
welded orthogonally (90) to a rod.
 The vane is pushed from the bottom of a borehole to the
desired depth usually at 1m intervals.
 A torque T is applied by a torque head device (located
above the soil surface and attached to the shear vane rod)
and the vane is rotated at a slow rate of 6 0 per minute.
 As a result, shear stresses are mobilized on all surfaces of a
cylindrical volume of the soil generated by the rotation.
 The maximum torque is measured by a suitable
instrument and equals to the moment of the mobilized
shear stress about the central axis of the apparatus.

02/23/25 77
Vane Shear Test cont’d
 The undrained shear strength is calculated from:

 Where Tmax is the maximum torque, h is the height

of the vane, and d is the diameter of the vane.
 The ratio h/d is generally 2.
 The factor 1/3 is based on the assumption of a
uniform strain distribution between the top and
bottom of the failure surfaces.
02/23/25 78
 • What does Vane Shear Test measure?
o Shear strength
 a term used to describe the maximum strength of soil at
which point significant plastic deformation or
yielding occurs due to an applied shear stress.
o Undrained shear strength
 refers to a shear condition where water does not enter
or leave the cohesive soil during the shearing process
o Remolded undrained shear strength
 is the peak undrained shearing resistance measured
during the initial rotation of the vane.
o Peak undrained shear strength
 is the shear strength after significant failure and
remolding of the initial soil structure.
o Sensitivity
 is the effect of remolding on the consistency of cohesive
soil.

02/23/25 79
Vane shear test
This is one of the most versatile and widely used devices used for
investigating undrained shear strength (Cu) and sensitivity of soft
clays
Applied
Torque, T Disturbe Rupture
d soil surface
Bore hole
(diameter = DB)

h > 3DB)
Vane T
H Vane

PLAN VIEW

Rate of rotation : 60 – 120 per minute

Test can be conducted at 0.5 m
D vertical intervals
Vane shear test T = Ms + Me + Me = Ms + 2Me
Me – Assuming a uniform distribution
of shear strength

Cu

Cu h d/2 d/2

d
2
M e ( 2rdr ).Cu r
Cu 0
d d
Since the test is very fast, 2
 r 3
 2
Unconsolidated Undrained M e 2Cu r dr 2Cu  
2
(UU) can be expected
0  3 0
2Cu  d 3  Cu d 3
Me   
3  8  12
Surface area of the cylinder = 2rh= dh
Vane shear test T = Ms + Me + M e = Ms +
2Me
Ms – Shaft shear resistance along
the circumference
2
d d h
M s dhCu Cu
2 2
Cu d 2 h Cu d 3
T Cu  2
2 12
 d 2h d 3 
Cu T Cu   
 2 6 
Since the test is very fast, T
Unconsolidated Undrained Cu 
(UU) can be expected  d 2h d 3 
   
 2 6 
Vane shear test

T = Ms + Me + Me = Ms + 2Me
Me – Assuming a triangular
distribution of shear strength

Cu h Cu

d/2 d/2

Cu T
Cu 
 d 2h d 3 
   
Since the test is very fast,
Unconsolidated Undrained
 2 8 
(UU) can be expected Can you derive this ???
Vane shear test
T = Ms + Me + Me = Ms + 2Me
Me – Assuming a parabolic
distribution of shear
strength

Cu h Cu

d/2 d/2

T
Cu Cu 
 d 2 h 3d 3 
Since the test is very fast,    
Unconsolidated Undrained  2 20 
(UU) can be expected
Can you derive this ???
Vane Shear Test cont’d
 After the maximum torque is obtained, the
shear vane is rotated an additional 8 to 10
revolutions to measure the residual torque,
Tr.
 The ratio of the peak torque to the residual
torque is the soil sensitivity, St, given by:

02/23/25 86
Vane shear test After the initial test, vane can be
rapidly rotated through several
revolutions until the clay become
remoulded

Cu h

peak
ultimate

Cu Shear displacement

Since the test is very fast,

Unconsolidated Undrained Peak Stength
(UU) can be expected
Sensitivity 
Ultimate Stength
Vane Shear Test cont’d
 Sensitivity is a measure of the reduction of
undrained shear strength due to soil disturbance.
 The insertion of the vane causes soil remolding.
 Higher blade thickness (h/d > 2) results in greater
remolding and lower soil strengths.
 The blade thickness should not exceed 5% of the
vane diameter.
 The vane shear test is used in soft to medium fine-
grained soils.
 The results of a vane shear test are displayed as
undrained or vane shear strength versus depth.

02/23/25 88
Vane Shear Test cont’d

02/23/25 89
Some important facts on vane shear
test

Insertion of vane into soft The above

clays and silts disrupts the reduction is
natural soil structure partially regained
around the vane causing after some time
reduction of shear Cu as determined by
strength vane shear test may
be a function of the
rate of angular
rotation of the vane
Correction for the strength parameters
obtained from vane shear test

Bjerrum (1974) has shown that as the plasticity of

soils increases, Cu obtained by vane shear tests
may give unsafe results for foundation design.
Therefore, he proposed the following correction.

Cu(design) = Cu(vane shear)

Where,  = correction factor = 1.7 – 0.54 log (PI)

PI = Plasticity Index
3). Plate Loading Test
 A square or circular plate is seated on the
stratum to be tested, usually at the bottom of a
trial pit, and loaded.
 Load is applied in increments and maintained
until full settlement has taken place at each load
increment.
 Correlations are available to estimate the
settlement of a full-sized foundation based on
settlement of the plate.
 Plate loading tests are particularly suitable for
coarse granular materials which cannot be tested
by normal laboratory means or by a penetration
test.
02/23/25 92
Plate Loading Test cont’d
 The main pitfall in predicting settlement from these tests is
that the zone of stressed soil beneath the plate is much
smaller than that beneath the larger foundation; it will
thus be unaffected by deeper strata whose load bearing
and settlement characteristics may critically affect the
behavior of the foundation.
 With clays, tests do not usually continue for long enough
for consolidation to be completed so settlement cannot be
predicted.
 In order to obtain reliable results, plates should be as large
as possible and should never be less than 0.3m.

02/23/25 93
Plate Loading Test: (a) setup, &
(b) stress or load vs settlement curve

(a) (b)
02/23/25 94
Plate loading Test cont’d

02/23/25 95
Plate loading Test cont’d
 There are several problems associated with the
plate load test.
 The test is reliable if the soil layer is thick and
homogeneous.
 Local conditions such as a pocket of weak soil
near the surface of plate can affect the test
results, but these may have no significant effect
on the real footing.
 For this case correlation between plate load
results and real footing is problematic, and
performance of the test is generally difficult.
02/23/25 96
4). Cone Penetration Test
(CPT)
 The Cone Penetration Test (CPT) is an in situ test used for
subsurface exploration in fine and medium sands, soft silts
and clays.
 The apparatus consists of a cone with a 35.7 mm end
diameter, projected area of 1000 mm 2 and 600 point angle
that is attached to a rod.
 An outer sleeve encloses the rod.
 The thrusts required to drive the cone and the sleeve 80
mm into the ground at a constant rate of 10 mm/s to 20
mm/s are measured independently so that the end
resistance or cone resistance and side friction or sleeve
resistance may be estimated separately.

02/23/25 97
CPT cont’d
 A special type of the cone penetrometer,
known as piezocone, has porous elements
inserted into the cone or sleeve to allow for
pore water pressure measurements.
 The cone resistance qc is normally correlated
with the undrained shear strength.

02/23/25 98
CPT cont’d
 One correlation equation is:
qc   z
Su 
Nk
 Where z represents the total overburden
pressure above the cone tip, and Nk is a cone
factor that depends on the geometry of the
cone and the rate of penetration.

02/23/25 99
CPT cont’d
 Average values of Nk as a function of
plasticity index Ip can be estimated from:
I p  10
N k 19  ; I p 10
5
 Results of cone penetrometer tests have also
been correlated with the friction angle.

02/23/25 100
Figure 1.13. (a). CPT device, (b). Piezocone and parameters measured in
piezocone test, and (c). CPT Field set-up

02/23/25 101
Advantage & Disadvantage
of CPT
 The CPT has the advantage of
continuously collecting information on
the properties of soils.
 It is therefore more accurate in
determining soil profile when
compared with SPT.
 However, CPT is not suitable in some
ground conditions, such as in dense
saprolites or gravelly soils, where it
may be difficult to advance the cone.
02/23/25 102
Swedish Weight Sounding Test
(SWST)
 The Swedish Weight Sounding Test (SWST) was
developed and standardized by the
Geotechnical Commission of the Swedish State
Railways and was used since 1914 as part of
the investigation of soil strata in Sweden.
 Because SWST is simple and yields quick and
reliable results, it has gained worldwide
acceptance as test for shallow subsurface soil
layers.

103
SWST
 Swedish weight sounding tests are commonly
conducted to obtain estimates of the shear
strength or SPT-Numbers of soil deposits.
 With the enactment of the Japan Housing
Quality Assurance Act in 2000, this test has
been recommended for the evaluation of
foundation strength for residential construction.

104
SWST
 Due to the portability of the equipment, this
test has been also used in reconnaissance and
surveys of landslides and earthquake-disaster-
stricken sites.
 The Swedish Weight Equipment consists of a
screw point, sounding rods, rotating handle and
10 individual weights of 10 kg each, making a
total of 100 kg.

105
Hydraulic Conductivity Test
 The hydraulic conductivity k in the field is
obtained by pumping water at a constant flow
rate from a well and measuring the decrease in
groundwater level at observation wells.
 The hydraulic conductivity for a confined
aquifer is calculated using Darcy’s law and
Dupuit’s assumption and is given as:

02/23/25 106
Hydraulic Conductivity Test cont’d

 r2 
q ln 
 r1 
k 

 h22  h12 

02/23/25 107
Hydraulic Conductivity Test cont’d

02/23/25 108
 Soil Sampling
 Laboratory test results are mainly
dependent on the quality of soil
samples.
 There are two main types of soil
samples which can be recovered from
bore holes or trial pits.
 Disturbed, and
 Undisturbed samples

02/23/25 109
Disturbed Samples
 These are samples where the structure of the
natural soil has been disturbed to a
considerable degree by the action of the
boring tools or excavation equipment.
 However, these samples represent the
composition and the mineral content of the
soil.
 Disturbed samples are satisfactory for
performing classification tests such as, sieve
analysis, Atterberg limits etc.
02/23/25 110
Undisturbed Samples
 These are samples, which represent as closely as is
practicable, the true in-situ structure and water content of
the soil.
 Undisturbed samples are required for determining reliable
information on the shearing resistance and stress-
deformation characteristics of a soil deposit.
 It is virtually impossible to obtain totally undisturbed
samples.
 This is due to that:
The process of boring, driving the coring tool,
raising and withdrawing the coring tool and extruding
the sample from the coring tool, all conspire to cause
some disturbance.
In addition, samples taken from holes may tend to
swell as a result of stress relief.

02/23/25 111
Undisturbed Samples cont’d
 Samples should be taken only from a newly- drilled or
newly extended hole, with care being taken to avoid contact
with water.
 As soon as they are brought to the surface:
 Core tubes ends should be sealed with wax and
capped to preserve the loss of moisture content.
 Core tubes should properly be labeled to indicate
the number of bore holes and the depth at which
they are taken and then stored away from
extremes of heat or cold and vibration.

02/23/25 112
Categories of sampling methods and laboratory quality classes of samples

 A major consideration during sampling a

particular stratum is to ensure that the
sample taken is appropriate for the tests
required and that the results obtained
from the testing are then relevant to the
actual conditions in the field.
 To ensure accurate and reliable test
results, the quality of the sample must
therefore be appropriate for that
particular test.
113
 For example, a sample of soil taken
for shear strength determination by
triaxial testing must be undisturbed,
whereas a sample for particle size
distribution can be a disturbed
sample.

114
 EN 1997-2:2007 offers guidance which is
used, alongside EN ISO 22475-1:2006
(the International Standard for
Geotechnical Investigation and Testing –
Sampling methods and groundwater
measurements), to identify the type of
laboratory tests that can be performed
from different quality classes of sample,
which in turn are achievable from the
different sampling methods available.
115
 Five classes of samples are considered,
with Class 1 being the highest quality
(least disturbed, most representative of
actual in situ conditions and
appropriate for use in shear strength
and compressibility testing) and Class 5
being the lowest quality (i.e. completely
disturbed and only of use in identifying
the sequence of layers in the ground).

116
 Three categories of sampling
methods (Categories A, B and C) are
considered.
 They are related to the best
obtainable laboratory quality class of
soil samples as shown in Table 1.7.

117
Table 1.7 Quality classes of soil samples for laboratory
testing and sampling categories to be used (after BS EN
1997-2:2007)

118
 From Table 1.7 it is seen that:
 Sample quality classes 1 to 5 can be
achieved from Category A sampling
methods.
 Sample quality classes 3 to 5 can be
achieved from Category B sampling
methods.
 Sample quality class 5 can be achieved
from Category C sampling methods.

119
 Guidance on which sampling
techniques fall into each category for
different ground conditions are given
in EN ISO 22475-1:2006.
 These are summarised in Table 1.8.

120
Table 1.8 Sampling categories
for different soil types.

121
Types of tube samplers
 Split Spoon Sample
 Thin-Walled Tube Sampler
 Piston Samplers

02/23/25 122
Design Factors Affecting Sample
Disturbance
 The disturbance of soil depends mainly
depends upon the following design features:
 Area Ratio
 Inside Clearance
 Outside Clearance
 Inside Wall Friction
 Design of Non-Return Valve
 Method of Applying Force
Area Ratio
 For obtaining a good quality of undisturbed soil
sample, the area ratio should be 10% or less.
 The area ratio is calculated by the formula that
is given in the below image. 123
Design Factors Affecting Sample
Disturbance
Inside Clearance
For an undisturbed sample the inside
clearance should be between 0.5 to 3%.
The inside clearance is calculated by the
formula that is given in the below image.
Outside Clearance
For an undisturbed soil sample the
outside clearance should be lies between
0 and 2%.
The outside clearance is calculated by
the formula that is given in the below 124
Design Factors Affecting Sample
Disturbance

125
Design Factors Affecting Sample
Disturbance
Inside Wall Friction
The inside surface of the sampler should
be smooth, so the disturbance due to
friction is less.
Design of Non-Return Valve
The non-return valve should be of proper
design so it allows water, air, slurry to
escape quickly when the different types of
the sampler are driven.
Method of Applying Force
Soil sample how much going to disturb
126
mainly depends on In which manner we
127
Geotechnical Investigation
Reports
 GIR
 Factual reports
 Interpretative reports
 GDR

128
Borehole Log

129
02/23/25 130
 CHAPTER TWO
TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS AND THEIR SELECTION

Types of foundations
 Foundations can be broadly classified into the following two
categories.
1) Shallow Foundation- Depth is equal to or less than its width
2) Deep Foundation – Depth is greater than its width
1) Shallow foundations
 The foundations provided immediately beneath the lowest part of the
structure, near to the ground level are known as shallow foundations.
 The purpose of this type of foundations is to distribute the structural
loads over a considerable base area at the foundation bed.
 Since shallow foundations are constructed in open excavations,
therefore, they are termed as open foundations.

02/23/25 131
 Shallow foundations cont’d
 Shallow foundations are further classified into
the following types: -
a) Spread or Isolated footings
b) Combined footing
c) Cantilever footing
d) Continuous or wall footing
e) Mat (or Raft) foundation

02/23/25 132
 a). Spread or Isolated Footings
 They are used to support individual column.
 Isolated footings are stepped type, simple type or
sloped type, having projections in the base
concrete.
 To support heavy loads, reinforcement is also
provided at the base.
 The reinforcement provided is in the form of steel
bars and is placed in both directions.

02/23/25 133
 Spread or Isolated Footings cont’d

02/23/25 134
 b). Combined Footing
 A combined footing supports two or sometimes
three columns in a row.
 Combined footing is used:
1) when columns are closely spaced and
designing/proportioning of isolated footings
results in an overlap of footing areas
2) when there is a property line/boundary
line/restriction and there exists a column along
the boundary line and use of isolated footing is
not possible.

02/23/25 135
 Combined Footing cont’d

 The combined footing can be

rectangular in shape if both the
columns carry almost equal
loads, or can be trapezoidal if
there is a space limitation and
they carry unequal loads.
02/23/25 136
 Combined Footing cont’d

02/23/25 137
 c). Cantilever or Strap Footing
 Cantilever footing consists of two individual footings
connected by a beam called a strap.
 It is also sometimes referred to as strap footing.
 It is used when the distance between the columns is so
great that a combined trapezoidal footing becomes quite
narrow, with high bending moments.
 In this case the column is provided with its independent
footings and a beam is used to connect the two footings.
 The strap beam does not remain in contact with soil so it
doesn’t transfer any pressure to the soil.
 The strap, assumed to be infinitely stiff, serves to transfer
the column loads on the soil with equal and uniform soil
pressure under both footings.
02/23/25 138
 Cantilever or Strap Footing cont’d

02/23/25 139
d). Continuous(or Strip) or Wall Footing
 In this type of footing a single continuous
reinforced concrete slab is provided as
foundation of wall and three or more columns
in a row.
 This type of footing is suitable at locations
liable to earthquake activities.
 This also prevents differential settlement in
the structure.
02/23/25 140
Continuous(or Strip) or Wall Footing cont’d

02/23/25 141
 e). Mat (or Raft) Foundations
 A raft or mat is a combined footing that
covers the entire area beneath a structure and
supports all the columns and walls.
 When the allowable soil pressure is low or the
structure loads are heavy, the use of spread
footings would cover more than one-half of
the area, and it may prove more economical to
use raft foundation.

02/23/25 142
 Mat (or Raft) Foundations cont’d
 It is also used where the soil mass
contains compressible layers so
that the differential settlement
would be difficult to control, the
raft tends to bridge over the
erratic deposits and eliminates the
differential settlement.
02/23/25 143
 Mat (or Raft) Foundations cont’d

02/23/25 144
 Deep Foundations
 When the upper ground stratum at a site is weak
and unable to carry the load even by a raft
foundation, then eventually shallow foundation
has to be ruled out, and a deep foundation, taken
to an available firm stratum, is adopted.
 Deep foundations are of the following types.
a) Pile foundation
b) Pier foundation
c) Caisson /well foundation
02/23/25 145
 a). Pile foundations
Pile foundations are preferable under the following
situations:
 When the upper soil layer(s) is (are) highly compressible
and too weak to support the load transmitted by the
superstructure.
 When bedrock is not encountered at a reasonable depth
below the ground surface, piles are used to transmit the
structural load to the soil gradually.
 When the resistance to the applied structural load is
derived mainly from the frictional resistance developed at
the soil-pile interface.
02/23/25 146
 Pile foundations cont’d
 When subjected to horizontal forces, pile foundations
resist by bending while still supporting the vertical load
transmitted by the superstructure.
 This type of situation is generally encountered in the
design and construction of the earth retaining structures
and foundations of tall structures that are subjected to
high wind and/or earthquake forces.
 In many cases, expansive soils may be present at the site
of proposed structure; these soils may extend to a great
depth below the ground surface.

02/23/25 147
 Pile foundations cont’d
 Expansive soils swell and shrink as the
moisture content increases and decreases, and
swelling pressure of such soils can cause
considerable damage to superstructure.
 However, pile foundations may be considered
as an alternative when piles are extended
beyond the active zone, which swells and
shrinks upon wetting and drying respectively.

02/23/25 148
 Pile foundations cont’d
 Foundations of some structures, such as
transmission towers, offshore platforms, and
basement mats below the water table, are
subjected to uplifting forces.
 Piles are sometimes used for these foundations to
resist the uplifting force.
 Bridge abutments and piers are usually
constructed over pile foundations to avoid the
possible loss of bearing capacity that a shallow
foundation might suffer because of soil erosion at
the ground surface.
02/23/25 149
 Types of Pile foundations
Based on functions piles can be divided as:
 End bearing piles
 Friction piles, and
 Combined End bearing and Friction piles
 Anchor piles
 Fender piles
 Compaction piles
 Tension piles, etc.,
02/23/25 150
 i. End bearing Piles
 Used to transfer load through water or soft
soil to a suitable bearing stratum.
 Such piles are used to carry heavy loads
safely to hard strata.
 Multi-storey buildings are invariably
founded on end bearing piles, so that the
settlements are minimized.

02/23/25 151
 End bearing Piles cont’d

02/23/25 152
 ii. Friction Piles
 Used to transfer load to a depth of a
friction – load- carrying material by
means of skin friction along the length
of the pile.
 Generally used in granular soil where
the depth of hard stratum is very
great.
02/23/25 153
 Friction Piles cont’d

02/23/25 154
 iii) Combined end bearing and friction piles

 Some times the super imposed load is

transferred both through side friction
and end bearing.

02/23/25 155
Combined end bearing and friction piles cont’d

02/23/25 156
 iv) Compaction piles
 Used to compact loose granular soils, thus
increasing their bearing capacity.
 The compaction piles themselves do not carry
a load.
 Hence it may be of weaker material (eg
timber, bamboo, etc).
 The pile tube, driven to compact the soil, is
gradually taken out and sand is filled in its
place thus forming a ‘sand pile’.
02/23/25 157
 Compaction piles cont’d

02/23/25 158
 b). Pier Foundations
 Transfer large superimposed loads to the firm strata.
 The difference between pile foundation and pier foundation lies in
the method of construction.
 Pile foundations transfer the load through skin friction and end
bearing; pier foundations transfer the load only through end
bearing.
 Pier foundation is shallower in depth than pile foundation.
 Pier foundation is preferred in a location where the top stratum
consists of decomposed rock overlying a stratum of sound rock. In
such cases it is difficult to drive the bearing piles through
decomposed rock.

02/23/25 159
160
Chapter – Three
Bearing
Capacity/Resistance
/
of
Shallow
foundations 161
 Introduction
A foundation is a structure designed to transfer loads from a
superstructure to the soil underneath the superstructure.
In general, foundations are categorized into two groups,
namely, shallow and deep foundations.
Generally, foundations whose depth to width ratio is less than
one (Df/B < 1) are said to be shallow foundations, and those
whose depth to width ratio (Df/B > 1) are called deep
foundations.
Some of the common types of shallow foundations are wall or
continuous footing, spread footing, footing with pedestal, strap
footing, combined footing, raft or mat foundation, etc,.
The foundation should be designed such that:
(a) the soil below does not fail in shear and,
162
(b) settlement is within the safe limits.
 Definition of Key Terms

1.Ultimate Bearing Capacity (qu):- The ultimate bearing capacity is

the gross pressure at the base of the foundation at which soil fails in
shear.
2.Net ultimate Bearing Capacity (qnu):- It is the net increase in
pressure at the base of foundation that cause shear failure of the soil.
Thus, qnu = qu – γDf (overburden pressure)
3.Net Safe Bearing Capacity (qns):- It is the net soil pressure which can
be safely applied to the soil considering only shear failure. Thus, qns =
qnu /FS.
 FS - Factor of safety usually taken as 2.00 - 3.00.
 Lower value of safety factor applied to cohesionless soils, and
 Higher value of safety factor applied to cohesive soils. 163
 Definition of Key Terms cont’d

4)Gross Safe Bearing Capacity (qs): It is the maximum pressure which

the soil can carry safely without shear failure. qs = qnu / FS + γ Df
5)Net Safe Settlement Pressure (qnp): It is the net pressure which the
soil can carry without exceeding allowable settlement.
6)Net Allowable Bearing Pressure (qna): It is the net bearing pressure
which can be used for design of foundation.
Thus, qna = qns ; if qnp > qns
qna = qnp ; if qns > qnp
It is also known as Allowable Soil Pressure (ASP).
164
Bearing Capacity Failure
 a) General Shear Failure
Most common type of
shear failure; occurs in
strong soils and rocks

 b) Local Shear Failure

Intermediate between
general and punching
shear failure

 c) Punching Shear Failure

Occurs in very loose
sands weak clays 165
166
 1. General Shear failure
 The load - Settlement curve in case of footing resting on surface
of dense sand or stiff clays shows pronounced peak & failure
occurs at very small stain.
 A loaded base on such soils sinks or tilts suddenly in to the
ground showing a surface heave of adjoining soil
 The shearing strength is fully mobilized all along the slip surface
& hence failure planes are well defined.
 The failure occurs at very small vertical strains accompanied by
large lateral strains.
 ID > 65 ,N>35, Φ > 360, e < 0.55
 2) Local Shear failure
 For footing resting on surface of medium sand or medium clay,
when load is equal to a certain value qu(1), the foundation
movement is accompanied by sudden jerks.
 The failure surface gradually extend out wards from the
foundation.
 The failure starts at localized spot beneath the foundation &
migrates out ward part by part gradually leading to ultimate
failure.
 The shear strength of soil is not fully mobilized along planes &
hence failure planes are not defined clearly.
 The failure occurs at large vertical strain & very small lateral
strains.
 I = 15 to 65 , N=10 to 30 , Φ <30, e>0.75
D
 3) Punching Share failure

 For strip footing resting on surface of loose sand or soft

clay the loaded base sinks into soil like a punch.
 The failure surface do not extend up to the ground
surface.
 No heave is observed.
 Large vertical strains are involved with practically no
lateral deformation.
 Failure planes are difficult to locate
Development of Bearing Capacity Theory
 Application of limit equilibrium methods first done by
Prandtl on the punching of thick masses of metal.

 Prandtl's methods adapted by Terzaghi to bearing capacity

failure of shallow foundations.

 Vesicʼ and others improved on Terzaghi's original theory and

added other factors for a more complete analysis

170
Assumptions for Terzaghi's Method
 Depth of foundation is less than or equal to its
width
 No sliding occurs between foundation and soil
(rough foundation)
 Soil beneath foundation is homogeneous semi
infinite mass
 Mohr-Coulomb model for soil
 General shear failure mode is the governing mode
(but not the only mode)
171
Assumptions for Terzaghi's
Method cont’d
 No soil consolidation occurs
 Foundation is very rigid relative to the soil
 Soil above bottom of foundation has no shear
strength; is only a surcharge load against the
overturning load
 Applied load is compressive and applied
vertically to the centroid of the foundation
 No applied moments present

172
Failure Geometry for Terzaghi's
Method

173
FAILURE ZONES:
1. ACD : TRIANGULAR ZONES
2. ADF & CDE : RADIAL SHEAR ZONES
3. AFH & CEG : RANKINE PASSIVE ZONES
Notes on Terzaghi's Method
 Since soil cohesion can be difficult to quantify,
conservative values of c (cohesion) should be
used.

 Frictional strength is more reliable and does

not need to be as conservative as cohesion.

 Terzaghi's method is simple and familiar to

many geotechnical engineers; however, it does
not take into account many factors, nor does it
consider cases such as rectangular
foundations.
175
Terzaghi’s BCEs
For continuous footings:
qu =C’Nc + γ Df Nq + 0.5 γ B N γ

This is Terzaghi’s Bearing capacity equation for determining

ultimate bearing capacity of strip footing. Where Nc, Nq & Nr
are Terzaghi’s bearing capacity factors & depends on angle of
shearing resistance (ø)
Terzaghi’s bearing capacity eqn cont’d
 Ultimate Bearing Capacity for square &
circular footing -Based on the experimental
results, Terzaghi’s suggested following
equations for UBC
 Square footing:
qu = 1.3c’ Nc + γ Df Nq + 0.4 γ BNr
 Circular footing:
qu = 1.3c’Nc + γ Df Nq + 0.3 γ BNr
Important points :
* Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity equation is applicable
for general shear failure.
* Terzaghi has suggested following empirical reduction to
actual c & ø in case of local shear failure
Mobilised cohesion Cm = 2/3 C
Mobilised angle of øm = tan –1 (⅔tanø)
Thus, Nc’,Nq’ & Nr’ are B.C. factors for local shear failure

qu = CmNc’+ γ Df Nq’+ 0.5 γ B Nr’

,
,
Terzaghi’s bearing capacity factors

e ( 3 / 2   ') tan  '

Nq 
2 cos ( 45   ' / 2)
2

N c cot  ' ( N q  1)
 K p 
N   tan  ' 
1
2  1
 cos  '
2

Terzaghi’s bearing capacity coefficients.
Cont’d
 Based on the above figure, Aysen (2002)
proposed the following equation to obtain the
value of Kp in the N equation:

K p (8 '  4 '3.8) tan (60   ' / 2)

2 2 0

Where : ’ in the first term is in radians.

 In the undrained conditions (cu and u=0):

N q 1 N c ( 32   1) 5.71 N  0
Meyerhof’s Bearing Capacity equation

 Meyerhof (1951) developed a bearing capacity

equation by extending Terzaghi’s failure
mechanism and taking into account the effects of
footing shape, load inclination and footing depth
by adding the corresponding factors of s, d, and i.
 For a rectangular footing of L by B (L > B) and
inclined load:

qu c' N c s c ic d c  DN q s q iq d q  0.5 BN  s i d 

 For vertical load, ic = iq = i = 1
,
,

Hence, for vertical load:

qu c' N c s c d c  DN q s q d q  0.5BN  s d 

 The bearing capacity factors:
N q exp( tan  ' ) tan 2 ( 45   ' / 2)

N c cot  ' ( N q  1)

N  ( N q  1) tan(1.4 ' )
,

In the undrained conditions (cu and u=0):

N q 1
N c (  2) 5.71

N  0
Meyerhof’s bearing capacity coefficients.
Hansen’s Bearing Capacity Equation

 Hansen (1961) extended Meyerhof’s

solutions by considering the effects of
sloping ground surface and tilted
base (Fig. below) as well as
modification of N and other factors.
Hansen’s Bearing Capacity eqn cont’d
Hansen’s Bearing Capacity eqn cont’d
 For a rectangular footing of L by B (L > B) and
inclined ground surface, base and load:
qu c' N c sc d c ic bc g c  DN q s q d q iq bq g q  0.5BN  s d  i b g 
 The above equation is sometimes referred to as
the general bearing capacity equation.
 In the special case of a horizontal ground
surface:

qu c' N c s c d c ic bc  DN q s q d q iq bq  0.5BN  s d  i b

 Hansen’s bearing capacity factors
 The bearing capacity factors Nc and Nq are
identical with Meyerhof’s factors.
 N is defined by:
N  1.5( N q  1) tan 
191
Since failure can take
place either along the long
side or along the short
side, Hansen proposed two
sets of shape, inclination
and depth factors.
192
Where the suffix i stands for B or
L.
A = the area of the footing base, and
 cb = the cohesion mobilized in the footing-soil contact
area.
For the tilted base:
2
 (0.7   450 ) H i 
0 0
i ,i  1  
 V  Acb cot  ' 
For cu, u=0 soil:

ic ,i 0.5  0.5 1  H i Acb

In the above equations, B and L may be replaced by
their effective values (B’ and L’) for eccentric loading.
For the sloping ground and tilted base, the ground
factors gi and base factors bi are proposed by the
following equations.
The angles  and  are at the same plane, either
parallel to B or L.
,
gc 1   0

147 0
g q g  1  0.5 tan  
5

gc   0

147 0
bc 1   0

147 0

bq e  2 tan  '

 2.7 tan  '

b e
For cu, u soil:

bc  0

147 0
A comparative summary of the three bearing
capacity equations
 Terzaghi’s equations are still widely used, perhaps
because they are somewhat simpler than Meyerhof’s
and Hansen’s.
 Practitioners use Terzaghi’s equations for a very
cohesive soil and D/B < 1.
 However, Terzaghi’s equations have the following
major drawbacks:
 Shape, depth and inclination factors are not considered.
 Terzaghi’s equations are suitable for a concentrically
loaded horizontal footing but are not suitable for
eccentrically (for example, columns with moment or titled
forces) loaded footings that are very common in practice.
 The equations are generally conservative than
Meyerhof’s and Hansen’s.
A comparative summary of the three bearing capacity
equations cont’d
 Currently, Meyerhof’s and Hansen’s
equations are more widely used than
Terzaghi’s.
 Both are viewed as somewhat less
conservative and applicable to more general
conditions.
 Hansen’s is, however, used when the base is
tilted or when the footing is on a slope and for
D/B > 1.
Effects of Groundwater Table on Bearing Capacity
 For all the bearing capacity equations, you will
have to make some adjustments for the
groundwater condition.
 The term D in the bearing capacity equations
refers to the vertical stress of the soil above the
base of the footing.
 The last term B refers to the vertical stress of a
soil mass of thickness B, below the base of the
footing.
 You need to check which one of the three
groundwater situations is applicable to your
project.
Effects of Groundwater Table on Bearing Capacity

Case 1:
 Groundwater level at or beyond a depth B below the base
of the footing.
 In this case no modification of the bearing capacity
equations is required.

B
B
Case 2
 Groundwater level within a depth B below
the base of the footing.
 If the groundwater level is at a depth z below
the base, such that z < B, then the term B is
z + (B – z) or sat*z + (B – z)
 The later equation is used if the soil above the
groundwater level is also saturated.
 The term D remains unchanged.
 Case 2 cont’d

B z
B
(B-
z)
Case 3
 Groundwater level within the embedment
depth.
 If the groundwater is at a depth z within the
embedment depth such that z < D, then the
term D is z + (D – z) or sat*z + (D – z)
 The later equation is used if the soil above the
groundwater level is also saturated.
 The term B becomes B .
 Case 3 cont’d

z
D
(D-z)

B
B
Net Safe Bearing Capacity (qns) and factor of safety

 The net safe bearing capacity, qns is calculated by dividing

the net ultimate bearing capacity by a factor, called the
factor of safety, FS.
 The FS is intended to compensate for assumptions made
in developing the bearing capacity equations, soil
variability, inaccurate soil data, and uncertainties of
loads.
 The magnitude of FS applied to the net ultimate bearing
capacity may be between 2 and 3.
 The net safe bearing capacity is:
qnu
qns 
FS
Net Safe Bearing Capacity (qns) and factor of safety cont’d

 Alternatively, if the maximum applied

foundation stress ( a ) max is known and the
dimension of the footing is also known then
one can find a factor of safety by replacing qns
by ( a ) max in the above equation:
 Hence, FS can be given as:
q nu
FS 
( a ) max
Eccentric Loads
 Meyerhof (1963) proposed an approximate
method for loads that are located off-centered
(or eccentric loads).

 Footing subjected to eccentric load

Eccentric Loads cont’d
 He proposed that for a rectangular footing of
width B and length L, the base area should be
modified with the following dimensions:
 B = B – 2eB , and
 L =L - 2eL
 Where:
 B and L are the modified width and length,
 eB and eL are the eccentricities in the
directions of the width and length,
respectively.
Eccentric Loads cont’d
 From your course mechanics you should
recall that :
 M y and Mx
eB  eL 
P P
Where:
 P is the vertical load, and
 My and Mx are the moments about the y and x
axes, respectively, as shown in the above
figure.
Maximum and Minimum Vertical Stresses
(a). along the x axis (along B):

P  6e B  P  6e B 
 max  1   and  min  1  
BL  B  BL  B 
(b). along the y axis (along L):

P  6e L  and P  6e L 
 max  1    min   1  
BL  B  BL  B 
Maximum and Minimum Vertical Stresses cont’d

 Since the tensile strength of soils is

approximately zero,  min should always be
greater than zero.
 Therefore, eB and eL should always be less
than B/6 and L/6, respectively.
 The bearing capacity equations are modified
for eccentric loads by replacing B with B' and
L with L'.
 max < allowable soil pressure.
Geotechnical Design using ES EN1997-1: 2015

Geotechnical Categories
The complexity of a geotechnical design (or
parts of a design) needs to be identified with its
associated risks in order to establish minimum
requirements for the scope of geotechnical
investigations, design calculations and
construction control.

213
 Table 3.1 -Geotechnical Categories of Structures
Category Includes….. Design requirements Design procedure

Small and relatively simple  Negligible risk of  Routine design

structures with negligible risk instability or ground & construction
GC1 movements methods
 Ground conditions
known to be
straightforward
 No excavation below
water table (or such
excavation is
straightforward)
GC2 Conventional types of  Quantitative  Routine field &
structure & foundation with geotechnical data & lab testing
analysis to ensure  Routine design
no exceptional risk or
fundamental & execution
difficult soil or loading requirements are
conditions satisfied
GC3 Structures or parts of Include alternative provisions and rules to those
structures not covered above in ES EN1997:2015 214
Geotechnical Categories of Structures cont’d
Examples of structures in Geotechnical Category 2 include:
spread, raft, and pile foundations;
walls and other structures retaining or supporting soil or water;
excavations;
bridge piers and abutments;
embankments and earthworks;
ground anchors and other tie-back systems; and
tunnels in hard, nonfractured rock and not subjected to special water
tightness or other requirements.

215
Geotechnical Categories of Structures cont’d

Examples of structures in Geotechnical Category 3 include:

very large or unusual structures;
structures involving abnormal risks, or unusual or
exceptionally difficult ground or loading conditions;
structures in highly seismic areas; and
structures in areas of probable site instability or
persistent ground movements that require separate
investigation or special measures.

216
 Actions and Design Situations
Design situations are ''sets of physical conditions representing the real conditions occurring
during a certain time interval for which the design will demonstrate that relevant limit states are
not exceeded''. They are classified as follows:

o Persistent (conditions of normal use)

 period = same order as design working life (DWL) of structure
o Transient (temporary conditions, e.g. execution or repair)
 period << DWL and high probability of occurrence
o Accidental (exceptional conditions)
 e.g. fire, explosion, impact, local failure
o Seismic (exceptional conditions during earthquake) Overview
217
Table 3.2: Classification of Actions

218
Ultimate Limit State verification by Direct Method
ULS verifications are carried out with the three possible
Design Approaches:
oDA1
 Combination 1: A1+M1+R1
 Combination 2: A2+M2+R1
oDA2: A1+M1+R2
oDA3: (A1 or A2)* + M2+R3
*A1 is for structural actions and A2 is for geotechnical
actions.

219