Selection of a Research Approach  A more complete way to view the gradations of differences

A. RESEARCH APPROACH is in the basic philosophical assumptions researchers bring

 plans and the procedures for research that span the steps to the study, the types of research strategies used in the
from broad assumptions to detailed methods of data research (e.g., quantitative experiments or qualitative case
collection, analysis, and interpretation. studies), and the specific methods employed in conducting
 plan or proposal to conduct research and the overall these strategies (e.g., collecting data quantitatively on
decision involves which approach should be used to study instruments versus collecting qualitative data through
a topic. observing a setting).
 Informing this decision should be the philosophical
assumptions the researcher brings to the study; Components Involved in an Approach
 The broad research approach involves the intersection of:
procedures of inquiry (called research designs); and
specific research methods of data collection, analysis, 1. philosophy (assumptions that they bring to the
and interpretation. study),
 The selection of a research approach is also based on 2. research designs that is related to this worldview, and
the nature of the research problem or issue being 3. the specific methods or procedures of research that
addressed, the researchers’ personal experiences, translate the approach into practice.
and the audiences for the study.

Approaches to Research
1. Qualitative research
an approach for exploring and understanding the
meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human
problem. The process of research involves emerging
questions and procedures, data typically collected in the
participant’s setting, data analysis inductively building from
particulars to general themes, and the researcher making
interpretations of the meaning of the data.

2. Quantitative research
an approach for testing objective theories by
Philosophical Worldviews
examining the relationship among variables. These  Worldview refers “a basic set of beliefs that guide action”
variables, in turn, can be measured, typically on (Guba, 1990, p. 17).
instruments, so that numbered data can be analyzed using  Others have called them:
statistical procedures.  paradigms (Lincoln, Lynham, & Guba, 2011; Mertens,
2010);
3. Mixed methods research  epistemologies and ontologies (Crotty, 1998), or
an approach to inquiry involving collecting both
 broadly conceived research
quantitative and qualitative data, integrating the two forms
methodologies
(Neuman, 2009).
of data, and using distinct designs that may involve  Worldviews refers to a general philosophical orientation
philosophical assumptions and theoretical frameworks.
about the world and the nature of research that a
The core assumption of this form of inquiry is that the
researcher brings to a study. It arises based on discipline
combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches
orientations, students’ advisors/mentors inclinations, and
provides a more complete understanding of a research
past research experiences.
problem than either approach alone.

 Qualitative and quantitative approaches should not be

viewed as rigid, distinct categories, polar opposites, or
dichotomies. Instead, they represent different ends on a
continuum (Newman & Benz, 1998).
 Mixed methods research resides in the middle of this
continuum because it incorporates elements of both
qualitative and quantitative approaches.
 The distinction is framed in terms of using words
(qualitative) rather than numbers (quantitative), or using
closed-ended questions (quantitative hypotheses) rather
than open-ended questions (qualitative interview
questions).
The Postpositivist Worldview research problem and use all approaches available to
 The postpositivist assumptions have represented the understand the problem (see Rossman & Wilson, 1985).
traditional form of research, and these assumptions hold  Pragmatism is not committed to any one system of
true more for quantitative research than qualitative philosophy and reality. This applies to mixed methods
research. research in that inquirers draw liberally from both
 This worldview is sometimes called the scientific method, quantitative and qualitative assumptions when they
or doing science research. It is also called engage in their research.
positivist/postpositivist research, empirical science , and  Individual researchers have a freedom of choice. In this
postpositivism. way, researchers are free to choose the methods,
 Postpositivists hold a deterministic philosophy in which techniques, and procedures of research that best meet
causes (probably) determine effects or outcomes. Thus, the their needs and purposes.
problems studied by postpositivists reflect the need to
identify and assess the causes that influence outcomes. It is B. RESEARCH DESIGN
also reductionistic in that the intent is to reduce the ideas  types of inquiry within qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
into a small, discrete set to test, such as the variables that methods approaches that provide specific direction for
comprise hypotheses and research questions. procedures in a research design. Others have called them
strategies of inquiry (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011).
Constructivist Worldview
 Social constructivists believe that individuals seek 1. Quantitative Designs
understanding of the world in which they live and work.  During the late 19th and throughout the 20th century,
Individuals develop subjective meanings of their strategies of inquiry associated with quantitative
experiences. These meanings are varied and multiple, thus research were those that invoked the postpositivist
lead to look for the complexity of views rather than worldview. These include true experiments and the
narrowing meanings into a few categories or ideas. less rigorous experiments called quasi- experiments.
 Researchers recognize that people have their own  Aside from experimental designs, non-experimental
backgrounds which shape their interpretation, thus, they designs are likewise important such as causal-
position themselves in the research to acknowledge how comparative research in which the investigator
their interpretation flows from their personal, cultural, and compares two or more groups in terms of a cause (or
historical experiences. The researcher’s intent is to make independent variable) that has already happened and
sense of (or interpret) the meanings others have about the correlational design in which investigators use the
world. correlational statistic to describe and measure the
degree or association (or relationship) between two or
Transformative Worldview more variables
 A transformative worldview holds that research inquiry
needs to be intertwined with politics and a political change Examples of Quantitative Designs:
agenda to confront social oppression at whatever levels it  Survey research provides a quantitative or numeric
occurs (Mertens, 2010). Thus, the research contains an description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population
action agenda for reform that may change lives of the by studying a sample of that population. It includes cross-
participants, the institutions in which individuals work or sectional and longitudinal studies using questionnaires or
live, and the researcher’s life. structured interviews for data collection—with the intent
 Moreover, specific issues need to be addressed that speak of generalizing from a sample to a population (Fowler,
to important social issues of the day, issues such as 2008).
empowerment, inequality, oppression, domination,
suppression, and alienation.  Experimental research seeks to determine if a specific
 The research in the transformative worldview links political treatment influences an outcome. The researcher assesses
and social action to these inequities and uses a program this by providing a specific treatment to one group and
theory of beliefs about how a program works and why the withholding it from another and then determining how
problems of oppression, domination, and power both groups scored on an outcome. Experiments include
relationships exist. true experiments, with the random assignment of subjects
to treatment conditions, and quasi-experiments that use
Pragmatic Worldview nonrandomized assignments (Keppel, 1991). Included
 Pragmatism as a worldview arises out of actions, situations, within quasi-experiments are single- subject designs.
and consequences rather than antecedent conditions.
There is a concern with applications—what works—and
solutions to problems (Patton, 1990). Instead of focusing
on methods, researchers emphasize the
2. Qualitative Designs activity, process, or one or more individuals. Cases are
 In qualitative research, the numbers and types of bounded by time and activity, and researchers collect
approaches have also become more clearly visible detailed information using a variety of data collection
during the 1990s and into the 21st century. The procedures over a sustained period of time (Stake, 1995;
historic origin for qualitative research comes from Yin, 2009, 2012).
anthropology, sociology, the humanities, and
evaluation. Books have summarized the various types, 3. Mixed Methods Designs
and complete procedures are now available on  Mixed methods involves combining or integration of
specific qualitative inquiry approaches. qualitative and quantitative research and data in a
 For example, Clandinin and Connelly (2000) research study. Qualitative data tends to be open-
constructed a picture of what narrative researchers ended without predetermined responses while
do. Moustakas (1994) discussed the philosophical quantitative data usually includes closed-ended
tenets and the procedures of the phenomenological responses such as found on questionnaires or
method; Charmaz (2006), Corbin and Strauss (2007) psychological instruments.
identified the procedures of grounded theory.
Fetterman (2010) and Wolcott (2008) summarized  Early thoughts about the value of multiple methods—
ethnographic procedures and the many faces and called mixed methods—resided in the idea that all
research strategies of ethnography, and Stake (1995) methods had bias and weaknesses, and the collection
and Yin (2009, 2012) suggested processes involved in of both quantitative and qualitative data neutralized
case study research. the weaknesses of each form of data. Triangulating
data sources—a means for seeking convergence
Examples of Qualitative Designs across qualitative and quantitative methods—was
 Narrative research is a design of inquiry from the born (Jick, 1979)
humanities in which the researcher studies the lives of
individuals and asks one or more individuals to provide Examples of Mixed Method Designs
stories about their lives (Riessman, 2008). This information  Convergent parallel mixed methods is a form of mixed
is then often retold or restoried by the researcher into a methods design in which the researcher converges or
narrative chronology. Often, in the end, the narrative merges quantitative and qualitative data in order to
combines views from the participant’s life with those of the provide a comprehensive analysis of the research problem.
researcher’s life in a collaborative narrative (Clandinin & In this design, the investigator typically collects both forms
Connelly, 2000). of data at roughly the same time and then integrates the
information in the interpretation of the overall results.
 Phenomenological research is a design of inquiry coming Contradictions or incongruent findings are explained or
from philosophy and psychology in which the researcher further probed in this design.
describes the lived experiences of individuals about a
phenomenon as described by participants. This description  Explanatory sequential mixed methods is one in which the
culminates in the essence of the experiences for several researcher first conducts quantitative research, analyzes
individuals who have all experienced the phenomenon. the results and then builds on the results to explain them in
(Giorgi, 2009; Moustakas, 1994). more detail with qualitative research. It is considered
explanatory because the initial quantitative data results are
 Grounded theory is a design of inquiry from sociology in explained further with the qualitative data. It is considered
which the researcher derives a general, abstract theory of sequential because the initial quantitative phase is followed
a process, action, or interaction grounded in the views of by the qualitative phase.
participants. This process involves using multiple stages of
data collection and the refinement and interrelationship of  Exploratory sequential mixed methods is the reverse
categories of information (Charmaz, 2006; Corbin & sequence from the explanatory sequential design. In the
Strauss, 2007). exploratory sequential approach the researcher first begins
with a qualitative research phase and explores the views of
 Ethnography is a design of inquiry coming from participants. The data are then analyzed, and the
anthropology and sociology in which the researcher studies information used to build into a second, quantitative phase.
the shared patterns of behaviors, language, and actions of The qualitative phase may be used to build an instrument
an intact cultural group in a natural setting over a that best fits the sample under study, to identify
prolonged period of time. Data collection often involves appropriate instruments to use in the follow-up
observations and interviews. quantitative phase, or to specify variables that need to go
into a follow-up quantitative study. Particular challenges to
 Case studies are a design of inquiry found in many fields, this design reside in focusing in on the appropriate
especially evaluation, in which the researcher develops an qualitative findings to use and the sample selection for
in-depth analysis of a case, often a program, event, both phases of research.
 Transformative mixed methods is a design that uses a
theoretical lens drawn from social justice or power as an
overarching perspective within a design that contains both
quantitative and qualitative data. The data in this form of
study could be converged or it could be ordered
sequentially with one building on the other.

 Embedded mixed methods design involves as well either

the convergent or sequential use of data, but the core idea
is that either quantitative or qualitative data is embedded
within a larger design (e.g., an experiment) and the data
sources play a supporting role in the overall design.

 Multiphase mixed methods design is common in the fields

of evaluation and program interventions. In this advanced
design, concurrent or sequential strategies are used in RESEARCH APPROACHES AS WORLDVIEWS, DESIGNS, AND
tandem over time to best understand a long-term program METHODS
goal.  The worldviews, the designs, and the methods all
contribute to a research approach that tends to be
quantitative, qualitative, or mixed.

 In Quantitative Approach: Postpositivist worldview,

experimental design, and pretest and posttest measures of
attitudes
 In this scenario, the researcher tests a theory by
specifying narrow hypotheses and the collection of
data to support or refute the hypotheses. An
experimental design is used in which attitudes are
assessed both before and after an experimental
treatment. The data are collected on an instrument
that measures attitudes, and the information is
analyzed using statistical procedures and hypothesis
testing.
C. RESEARCH METHODS
 The third major element in the framework is the that  In Qualitative Approach: Constructivist worldview,
involve the forms of data collection, analysis, and ethnographic design, and observation of behavior
interpretation that researchers propose for their studies.  In this situation, the researcher seeks to establish the
 The choice of methods turns on whether the intent is to meaning of a phenomenon from the views of
specify the type of information to be collected in advance participants. This means identifying a culture-sharing
of the study or to allow it to emerge from participants in group and studying how it develops shared patterns
the project. of behavior over time (i.e., ethnography). One of the
 Also, the type of data analyzed may be numeric key elements of collecting data in this way is to
information gathered on scales of instruments or text observe participants’ behaviors during their
information recording and reporting the voice of the engagement in activities.
participants. Researchers make interpretations of the
statistical results, or they interpret the themes or patterns  Qualitative approach: Transformative
that emerge from the data. worldview, narrative design, and open-ended interviewing
 Researchers make interpretations of the statistical results,  For this study, the inquirer seeks to examine an issue
or they interpret the themes or patterns that emerge from related to oppression of individuals. To study this,
the data. stories are collected of individual oppression using a
 In some forms of research, both quantitative and narrative approach. Individuals are interviewed at
qualitative data are collected, analyzed, and interpreted. some length to determine how they have personally
Instrument data may be augmented with open-ended experienced oppression.
observations, or census data may be followed by in-depth
exploratory interviews. In this case of mixing methods, the
researcher makes inferences across both the quantitative
and qualitative databases.
 In Mixed methods Approach: Pragmatic worldview, conducting personal interviews or making up-close
collection of both quantitative and qualitative data observations may gravitate to the qualitative approach. The
sequentially in the design mixed methods researcher is an individual familiar with
 The researcher bases the inquiry on the assumption both quantitative and qualitative research. This person also
that collecting diverse types of data best provides a has the time and resources to collect both quantitative and
more complete understanding of a research problem qualitative data and has outlets for mixed methods studies,
than either quantitative or qualitative data alone. The which tend to be large in scope.
study begins with a broad survey in order to
generalize results to a population and then, in a Audience
second phase, focuses on qualitative, open-ended  Researchers write for audiences that will accept their
interviews to collect detailed views from participants research. These audiences may be journal editors and
to help explain the initial quantitative survey. readers, faculty committees, conference attendees, or
colleagues in the field. Students should consider the
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING A RESEARCH APPROACH approaches typically supported and used by their advisers.
 Given the possibility of qualitative, quantitative, or mixed The experiences of these audiences with quantitative,
methods approaches, what factors affect a choice of one qualitative, or mixed methods studies can shape the
approach over another for the design of a proposal? decision made about the choice of design.
 Added to worldview, design, and methods would be th:
 research problem, In planning a research project, researchers need to identify
 personal experiences of the researcher, whether they will employ a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed
 audience(s) for whom the report will be written. methods approach. This approach is based on bringing together
a worldview or assumptions about research, a specific design,
Research Problem and research methods. Decisions about choice of an approach
 A research problem is an issue or concern that needs are further influenced by the research problem or issue being
to be addressed (e.g., the issue of racial studied, the personal experiences of the researcher, and the
discrimination). The problem comes from a void in the audience for whom the researcher writes.
literature, and conflict in research results in the
literature, topics that have been neglected in the Introduction to research
literature; a need to lift up the voice of marginalized
participants; and “real-life” problems found in the Research defined
workplace, the home, the community, and so forth. ■ Research has different meanings to different people. For
 Certain types of social research problems call for one, we can define research as an activity of systematic
specific approaches. For example, if the problem calls enquiry that seeks answers to a problem.
for (a) the identification of factors that influence an ■ According to Oxford English Dictionary (2002), research
outcome, (b) the utility of an intervention, or (c) is defined as “the systematic study of materials and
understanding the best predictors of outcomes, then sources in order to establish facts and reach new
a quantitative approach is best. It is also the best conclusions.”
approach to use to test a theory or explanation. ■ McMillan and Schumacher (1997) define research as “a
 On the other hand, if a concept or phenomenon systematic process of collecting and analyzing
needs to be explored and understood because little information (data) for some purpose.”
research has been done on it, then it merits a ■ Kerlinger (1986) defines scientific research as,
qualitative approach. “Systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical
 A mixed methods design is useful when the investigation of natural phenomena guided by theory
quantitative or qualitative approach, each by itself, is and
inadequate to best understand a research problem hypotheses about the presumed relations among such
and the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative phenomena.”
research (and its data) can provide the best ■ “Research is the systematic approach to obtaining and
understanding. confirming new and reliable knowledge”. This is a general
definition which applies to all disciplines.
Personal Experiences SOURCE:
Research is… FitzGerald (2016).
 Researchers’ own personal training and experiences also
influence their choice of approach. An individual trained in 1. Searching for explanation of events, phenomena,
technical, scientific writing, statistics, and computer relationships and causes
statistical programs and familiar with quantitative journals  What, how and why things occur
in the library would most likely choose the quantitative  Are there interactions?
design. On the other hand, individuals who enjoy writing in 2. A process
a literary way or  Planned and managed –to make the
information generated credible
 The process is creative
 It is circular–always leads to more
questions
 research will give rise to new ideas which, in turn, feed back into
Characteristics of Research the data collection and analysis stage. Decisions made early in
1. Research is directed toward the solution of a problem. the research process are often revisited in the light of new
2. Research requires expertise. insights or practical problems encountered along the way.
3. Research emphasizes the development of generalizations,
principles, or theories that will be helpful in predicting future Research Process - Cyclical or Iterative
occurrences.
4. Research is based upon observable experience or empirical
evidences.
5. Research demands accurate observation and description.

6. Research involves gathering new data from primary or first-

hand sources or using existing data for a new purpose.
7. Research is characterized by carefully designed procedure that
apply rigorous analysis.
8. Research involves the quest for answers to un-solved
problems.
9. Research strives to be objective and logical, applying every
possible test to validate the procedures employed the data
collected and the conclusions reached.
10. Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.
11. Research is carefully recorded and collected.
12. Research sometimes requires courage.

Research as a process (1)Through the process of designing your research, consideration

of both practical and conceptual issues may force you to
 Research can be seen as a series of linked activities reconsider your original research question.
moving from a beginning to an end. Research usually (2)Difficulties with access to research sites or participants may
begins with the identification of a problem followed by cause you to reconsider your questions or your methods.
formulation of research questions or objectives. (3) Issues arising during data collection may suggest that
Proceeding from this the researcher determines how additional data are required or reveal problems with the original
best to answer these questions and so decides what research question.
information to collect, how it will be collected, and how (4)Problems or new questions arising from analysis of data
it will be analyse in order to answer the research collected so far may result in a need to collect more data, sample
question. elsewhere or employ a different technique.
(5) Finally you progress to the report writing stage.
Research Process — Linear Representation

Research Process - The ‘Onion’ Diagram

Described in this way the research process is given the

Each layer of the onion presents a different set of choices
impression of linearity, yet research investigation is often an
regarding research philosophy, research approach, method
iterative process whereby the process of conducting the
and so on. All research involves choices at all these levels,
 though these choices are not always made explicit. Therefore, research types will vary according to our
Choices further into the centre of the onion are often, purposes. The major research types will fall under
but not always, contingent on those made further out. application, objectives, inquiry mode, and sometimes we
may use mixed method research.
Research Process Terminologies and Plan
■ Research approach Research Types
– This is the theoretical or ■ Application (Pure and applied research)
conceptual basis for
the research. For example: positivist, – Basic research is often considered researching
interpretivist, realist etc. for the sake of increasing knowledge as opposed
■ Research design to applied where the research truly is intended
– How data collection is organised in order to to solve a problem. Basic Research is often
answer the research question. Basic design called "pure" research and is considered the
types are: (1) Situation, ‘snap-shot’ or foundation for applied research. It determines
Baseline (sometimes called case-study); (2) or establishes fundamental facts and
Cross- sectional comparison; (3) relationships within a discipline or field of study.
Longitudinal; (4) Longitudinal comparison; – Applied research is "hands-on", which means
(5) Experiment. that the researcher is actually working with the
■ Research strategy topic/subjects while conducting the research. It
– Refers to a methodological practice or is undertaken specifically for the purpose of
tradition: For example: experiment, survey obtaining information to help resolve a
research, or case studies. particular problem. Generally, applied research
■ Data collection techniques focuses on "practical problems" such as climate
– How data are collected: questionnaire; change in order to come up with solutions to
interview; observation; better or improve an existing condition.
analysis. documentary – The distinction between them is in the
application
Why do research? –Basic has little application to real world policy and
We conduct research because we want to explore ideas management but could be done to guide applied research
and find solutions that make sense. In doing so a
person Basic/Pure and Applied Research
thinks, constantly assesses, reassesses and makes
decisions about the best possible means of obtaining
information that is trustworthy. We may like to call this
process a person’s thinking game or whole brain activity
and the psychologists call it right and left brain
attributes (Cherry et.al. 1993).
Where does research occur?
Research is conducted in many settings: educational
institutes, laboratories, classrooms, libraries, the city
streets, foreign cultures, etc. Some research is of short
duration. Other research is spread over a long period of
time. Research is usually done at universities at
graduate or undergraduate levels as a required course.
It can be done in various formats which fall under the
categories of qualitative and quantitative research, the
details of which will follow later in the module.
Research is done by researchers, who are professors
from education, natural sciences or social sciences, Research Types
experts, and students of graduate or undergraduate ■ Objectives (Descriptive, Co-relational, Exploratory and
programmed from related and multiple disciplines. Explanatory)
– Descriptive research is also called statistical
What do researchers use? research. The main goal of this type of research
The information gathered through research is to describe the data and characteristics about
recommendations provides an insight to the what is being studied. The idea behind this type
researchers for future course of action to be taken for of research is to study frequencies, averages,
better implementation and application. Some and other statistical calculations. Although this
businesses, industry and Departments of Education research is highly accurate, it does not gather
spend vast amounts of money for research activity for the causes behind a situation.
improvement and advancement in their programs. – Correlation research measures the relationship
Research Types between two or more variables or gives an
When carrying out research, our purposes are different. indication of how one variable may predict
 another. study are reported in sufficient detail that a
– Exploratory research is a type of research second researcher could repeat the study.
conducted because a problem has not been – Validity – This concerns the integrity of
clearly defined. Exploratory research helps conclusions that are generated through a
determine the best research design, data research study.
collection methods, and selection of ■ In certain instances and particularly where a research
subjects. Given that it is fundamental in study is not seeking to extrapolate statistical findings
nature, exploratory research often concludes beyond the research context, the criteria of
that a perceived problem does not actually trustworthiness has been suggested as a means to
exist. ensure the integrity of conclusions.
– Explanatory research explores "why," and ■ All the criteria above are judged by perceived rigour in
attempts to explain as the purposes of method; that is confidence that the researcher has
explanatory research. It builds on followed accepted procedures to ensure to the fullest
exploratory and descriptive research and that the conclusions reached are robust. To achieve
further identifies the reasons for something confidence in the results of a study demands ‘disciplined
that occurs. It looks for causes and reasons. inquiry’ such that the data, arguments, and reasoning
■ Inquiry mode (qualitative and quantitative) are able to withstand examination by other members of
– Qualitative research is research undertaken the scientific community (Punch 1998).
to gain insights concerning attitudes,
beliefs, motivations and behaviors of
individuals, to explore a social or human
problem. Qualitative research methods
include focus groups, in-depth interviews,
observation research, and case studies.
– Quantitative research is research
concerned with the measurement of
attitudes, behaviors and perceptions. It
includes interviewing methods such as
telephone, intercept, and door-to-door
interviews, as well as self-completion
methods such as mail outs and online
surveys.

What makes research scientific?

We place special emphasis on the process of research
because it is the rigour with which this is carried out
(the scientific method) that distinguishes scientific
research from other forms of enquiry, and scientific
knowledge from other kinds of knowledge.
Scientific method is one means by which knowledge is
created; however, it is not the only way we know or
understand our world. Scientific knowledge about the
world is based upon empirical observation.
Observation is used to develop theory to help us to
describe, understand, and predict how our world
works. The procedures by which observations are
gathered, evaluated, and used to produce new
knowledge are termed methodology.
■ Research methodologies are the rules and
procedures by which knowledge is generated and
shared. They allow research and therefore
knowledge claims to be evaluated. The following
criteria are commonly used to evaluate scientific
research (Bryman 2008).
– Reliability - Is the research study
repeatable? – that is: are the measures used
reliable and consistent. If I go back and
repeat the measurements in the same
conditions will I get the same results?
– Replication - This refers to the idea that the
procedures (methodology) employed in the